Resist

A resist, used in many areas of manufacturing and art, is something that is added to parts of an object to create a pattern by protecting these parts from being affected by a subsequent stage in the process. 　Often the resist is then removed. 　For example in the resist dyeing of textiles, wax or a similar substance is added to places where the dye is not wanted. 　The wax will "resist" the dye, and after it is removed there will be a pattern in two colours. 　Batik, shibori and tie-dye are among many styles of resist dyeing. 　Wax or grease can also be used as a resist in pottery, to keep some areas free from a ceramic glaze; the wax burns away when the piece is fired. 　Song dynasty Jizhou ware used paper cut-outs and leaves as resists or stencils under glaze to create patterns. 　Other uses of resists in pottery work with slip or paints, and a whole range of modern materials used as resists. 　A range of similar techniques can be used in watercolour and other forms of painting. 　While these artistic techniques stretch back centuries, a range of new applications of the resist principle have recently developed in microelectronics and nanotechnology. 　An example is resists in semiconductor fabrication, using photoresists (often just referred to as "resists") in photolithography.

Cure

A cure is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a medication, a surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured. 　The medical condition could be a disease, mental illness, genetic disorder, or simply a condition a person considers socially undesirable, such as baldness or lack of breast tissue. 　An incurable disease may or may not be a terminal illness; conversely, a curable illness can still result in the patient's death. 　The proportion of people with a disease that are cured by a given treatment, called the cure fraction or cure rate, is determined by comparing disease-free survival of treated people against a matched control group that never had the disease. 　Another way of determining the cure fraction and/or "cure time" is by measuring when the hazard rate in a diseased group of individuals returns to the hazard rate measured in the general population. 　Inherent in the idea of a cure is the permanent end to the specific instance of the disease. 　When a person has the common cold, and then recovers from it, the person is said to be cured, even though the person might someday catch another cold. 　Conversely, a person that has successfully managed a disease, such as diabetes mellitus, so that it produces no undesirable symptoms for the moment, but without actually permanently ending it, is not cured. 　Related concepts, whose meaning can differ, include response, remission and recovery.

Tent

A tent (/tɛnt/ (listen)) is a shelter consisting of sheets of fabric or other material draped over, attached to a frame of poles or a supporting rope. 　While smaller tents may be free-standing or attached to the ground, large tents are usually anchored using guy ropes tied to stakes or tent pegs. 　First used as portable homes by nomads, tents are now more often used for recreational camping and as temporary shelters. 　Tents range in size from "bivouac" structures, just big enough for one person to sleep in, up to huge circus tents capable of seating thousands of people. 　Tents for recreational camping fall into two categories. 　Tents intended to be carried by backpackers are the smallest and lightest type. 　Small tents may be sufficiently light that they can be carried for long distances on a touring bicycle, a boat, or when backpacking. 　The second type are larger, heavier tents which are usually carried in a car or other vehicle. 　Depending on tent size and the experience of the person or people involved, such tents can usually be assembled (pitched) in between 5 and 25 minutes; disassembly (striking) takes a similar length of time. 　Some very specialised tents have spring-loaded poles and can be pitched in seconds, but take somewhat longer to strike (take down and pack). 　Over the past decade, tents have also been increasingly linked with homelessness crises in the United States, Canada, and other regions. 　Places of multiple homeless people living in tents closely pitched or plotted near each other are often referred to as tent cities.

Reconnaissance

In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, the terrain, and civil activities in the area of operations. 　In military jargon, reconnaissance is abbreviated to recce (British, Canadian, Australian English) and to recon (American English), both derived from the root word reconnoitre. 　The types of reconnaissance include patrolling the local area of operations and long-range reconnaissance patrols, which are tasks usually realized by U.S. Army Rangers, cavalry scouts, and military intelligence specialists, using navy ships and submarines, reconnaissance aircraft, satellites to collect raw intelligence; and establishing observation posts. 　Moreover, espionage is different from reconnaissance, because spies work as civilians in enemy territory.

Dispersion (geology)

Dispersion is a process that occurs in soils that are particularly vulnerable to erosion by water. 　In soil layers where clays are saturated with sodium ions ("sodic soils"), soil can break down very easily into fine particles and wash away. 　This can lead to a variety of soil and water quality problems, including: large soil losses by gully erosion and tunnel erosion Soil structural degradation, clogging and sealing where dispersed particles settle Suspended soil causing turbidity in water and transporting nutrients off the land.

Mineral

In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form. 　The geological definition of mineral normally excludes compounds that occur only in living organisms. 　However, some minerals are often biogenic (such as calcite) or are organic compounds in the sense of chemistry (such as mellite). 　Moreover, living organisms often synthesize inorganic minerals (such as hydroxylapatite) that also occur in rocks. 　The concept of mineral is distinct from rock, which is any bulk solid geologic material that is relatively homogeneous at a large enough scale. 　A rock may consist of one type of mineral, or may be an aggregate of two or more different types of minerals, spacially segregated into distinct phases. 　Some natural solid substances without a definite crystalline structure, such as opal or obsidian, are more properly called mineraloids. 　If a chemical compound occurs naturally with different crystal structures, each structure is considered a different mineral species. 　Thus, for example, quartz and stishovite are two different minerals consisting of the same compound, silicon dioxide. 　The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) is the generally recognized standard body for the definition and nomenclature of mineral species. 　As of November 2022[update], the IMA recognizes 5,863 official mineral species. 　The chemical composition of a named mineral species may vary somewhat by the inclusion of small amounts of impurities. 　Specific varieties of a species sometimes have conventional or official names of their own. 　For example, amethyst is a purple variety of the mineral species quartz. 　Some mineral species can have variable proportions of two or more chemical elements that occupy equivalent positions in the mineral's structure; for example, the formula of mackinawite is given as (Fe,Ni) 9S 8, meaning Fe xNi 9-xS 8, where x is a variable number between 0 and 9. 　Sometimes a mineral with variable composition is split into separate species, more or less arbitrarily, forming a mineral group; that is the case of the silicates Ca xMg yFe 2-x-ySiO 4, the olivine group. 　Besides the essential chemical composition and crystal structure, the description of a mineral species usually includes its common physical properties such as habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, specific gravity, magnetism, fluorescence, radioactivity, as well as its taste or smell and its reaction to acid. 　Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification. 　Silicate minerals comprise approximately 90% of the Earth's crust. 　Other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates.

Toy

A toy or plaything is an object that is used primarily to provide entertainment. 　Simple examples include toy blocks, board games, and dolls. 　Toys are often designed for use by children, although many are designed specifically for adults and pets. 　Toys can provide utilitarian benefits, including physical exercise, cultural awareness, or academic education. 　Additionally, utilitarian objects, especially those which are no longer needed for their original purpose, can be used as toys. 　Examples include children building a fort with empty cereal boxes and tissue paper spools, or a toddler playing with a broken TV remote control. 　The term "toy" can also be used to refer to utilitarian objects purchased for enjoyment rather than need, or for expensive necessities for which a large fraction of the cost represents its ability to provide enjoyment to the owner, such as luxury cars, high-end motorcycles, gaming computers, and flagship smartphones. 　Playing with toys can be an enjoyable way of training young children for life experiences. 　Different materials like wood, clay, paper, and plastic are used to make toys. 　Newer forms of toys include interactive digital entertainment and smart toys. 　Some toys are produced primarily as collectors' items and are intended for display only. 　The origin of toys is prehistoric; dolls representing infants, animals, and soldiers, as well as representations of tools used by adults, are readily found at archaeological sites. 　The origin of the word "toy" is unknown, but it is believed that it was first used in the 14th century. 　Toys are mainly made for children. 　The oldest known doll toy is thought to be 4,000 years old. 　Playing with toys is an important part of aging. 　Younger children use toys to discover their identity, help with cognition, learn cause and effect, explore relationships, become stronger physically, and practice skills needed in adulthood. 　Adults on occasion use toys to form and strengthen social bonds, teach, help in therapy, and to remember and reinforce lessons from their youth.

Perturbation (geology)

Perturbation (from Latin: perturbare "to confuse, disorder, disturb", from per- "through" + turbare "disturb, confuse," from turba "turmoil, crowd") is a set of pedology (soil study) and sedimentary geology processes relating to changes in the nature of water-borne alluvial sediments and in situ soil deposits over time. 　Pedoturbation (from Greek: πέδον (pédon), "soil") involves mixing between soil horizons, and is an important factor in soil formation. 　Pedoturbation includes churning clays, cryoturbation, and bioturbation. 　Types of bioturbation include faunal pedoturbation (animal burrowing), and floral pedoturbation (root growth, tree-uprootings). 　Pedoturbation transforms soils through destratification, mixing, and sorting, as well as creating preferential flow paths for soil gas and infiltrating water. 　The zone of active bioturbation is termed the soil biomantle. 　Soil perturbation that is not pedoturbation. 　Precipitation of surface salts also causes localized disruption of soils. 　Because it does not result in mixing between soil horizons, it is not considered pedoturbation. 　In geology, bioturbation is the displacement and mixing of sediment particles (i.e. sediment reworking) and solutes (i.e. biologically-mediated irrigation) by benthic zone (bottom water) fauna (animals) or flora (plants). 　Activity of bacteria is yet another important cause of perturbation in the geological record. 　Field termites are especially important in tropical climate regions within 15° of the equator.

Perturbation

Look up perturbation or perturb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Perturbation or perturb may refer to: Perturbation theory, mathematical methods that give approximate solutions to problems that cannot be solved exactly Perturbation (geology), changes in the nature of alluvial deposits over time Perturbation (astronomy), alterations to an object's orbit (e.g., caused by gravitational interactions with other bodies) Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics), a set of approximation schemes directly related to mathematical perturbation for describing a complicated quantum system in terms of a simpler one Perturbation (biology), an alteration of the function of a biological system, induced by external or internal mechanisms Perturbation function, mathematical function which relates the primal and dual problems

Brass

Brass is an alloy of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion. 　In use since prehistoric times, it is a substitutional alloy: atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. 　Brass is similar to bronze, another copper alloy that uses tin instead of zinc. 　Both bronze and brass may include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic (As), lead (Pb), phosphorus (P), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn), and silicon (Si). 　Historically, the distinction between the two alloys has been less consistent and clear, and increasingly museums use the more general term "copper alloy." 　Brass has long been a popular material for its bright gold-like appearance and is still used for drawer pulls and doorknobs. 　It has also been widely used to make sculpture and utensils because of its low melting point, high workability (both with hand tools and with modern turning and milling machines), durability, and electrical and thermal conductivity. 　Brasses with higher copper content are softer and more golden in colour; conversely those with less copper and thus more zinc are harder are more silver in colour. 　Brass is still commonly used in applications where corrosion resistance and low friction are required, such as locks, hinges, gears, bearings, ammunition casings, zippers, plumbing, hose couplings, valves, and electrical plugs and sockets. 　It is used extensively for musical instruments such as horns and bells. 　The composition of brass, generally 66% copper and 34% zinc, makes it a favorable substitute for copper in costume jewelry and fashion jewelry, as it exhibits greater resistance to corrosion. 　Brass is not as hard as bronze, and so is not suitable for most weapons and tools nor marine uses, because the zinc reacts with minerals in salt water, leaving porous copper behind; Marine bronze, with added tin, avoids this, as does bronze. 　Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials.

Mario

Mario is a character created by Japanese video game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. 　He is the title character of the video game franchise of the same name and the mascot of Japanese video game company Nintendo. 　Mario has appeared in over 200 video games since his creation. 　Depicted as a short, pudgy, Italian plumber who resides in the Mushroom Kingdom, his adventures generally center on rescuing Princess Peach from the Koopa villain Bowser. 　Mario has access to a variety of power-ups that give him different abilities. 　Mario's fraternal twin brother is Luigi. 　Mario first appeared as the player character of Donkey Kong (1981), a platform game. 　Miyamoto wanted to use Popeye as the protagonist, but when he could not achieve the licensing rights, he created Mario instead. 　Miyamoto expected the character to be unpopular and planned to use him for cameo appearances; originally called "Mr. Video", he was renamed to Mario after Mario Segale. 　Mario's clothing and characteristics were themed after the setting of Donkey Kong. 　He then began to star in the Super Mario series of platform games, beginning with the critically acclaimed Super Mario Bros. in 1985. 　Since 1992, Mario has been voiced by Charles Martinet. 　After Super Mario Bros., Mario began to branch off to different genres. 　These include puzzle games such as Dr. Mario, role-playing games such as Paper Mario and Mario & Luigi, and sports games such as Mario Kart and Mario Tennis. 　He has appeared in other Nintendo properties, such as in the Super Smash Bros. series of crossover fighting games. 　Mario has also appeared in various animations, including three series produced by DIC Entertainment (voiced by Lou Albano and later Walker Boone), and was portrayed by Bob Hoskins in the 1993 Super Mario Bros. film. 　He will be voiced by Chris Pratt in the upcoming 2023 film adaptation. 　Mario is near-unanimously considered to be the most famous character in the video game industry and an established pop culture icon. 　Mario's likeness has appeared in a variety of merchandise, such as clothing and collectible items, and people and places have been nicknamed after him. 　He has also inspired a considerable amount of unofficial media. 　With more than 750 million units sold worldwide, the overall Mario franchise is the bestselling video game franchise of all time.

Sail

Sail rigs A sail is a tensile structure—which is made from fabric or other membrane materials—that uses wind power to propel sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and even sail-powered land vehicles. 　Sails may be made from a combination of woven materials—including canvas or polyester cloth, laminated membranes or bonded filaments—usually in a three- or four-sided shape. 　A sail provides propulsive force via a combination of lift and drag, depending on its angle of attack—its angle with respect to the apparent wind. 　Apparent wind is the air velocity experienced on the moving craft and is the combined effect of the true wind velocity with the velocity of the sailing craft. 　Angle of attack is often constrained by the sailing craft's orientation to the wind or point of sail. 　On points of sail where it is possible to align the leading edge of the sail with the apparent wind, the sail may act as an airfoil, generating propulsive force as air passes along its surface—just as an airplane wing generates lift—which predominates over aerodynamic drag retarding forward motion. 　The more that the angle of attack diverges from the apparent wind as a sailing craft turns downwind, the more drag increases and lift decreases as propulsive forces, until a sail going downwind is predominated by drag forces. 　Sails are unable to generate propulsive force if they are aligned too closely to the wind. 　Sails may be attached to a mast, boom or other spar or may be attached to a wire that is suspended by a mast. 　They are typically raised by a line, called a halyard, and their angle with respect to the wind is usually controlled by a line, called a sheet. 　In use, they may be designed to be curved in both directions along their surface, often as a result of their curved edges. 　Battens may be used to extend the trailing edge of a sail beyond the line of its attachment points. 　Other non-rotating airfoils that power sailing craft include wingsails, which are rigid wing-like structures, and kites that power kite-rigged vessels, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article.

Mature

Look up mature or immature in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Mature is the adjectival form of maturity, as immature is the adjectival form of immaturity, which have several meanings. 　Mature or immature may also refer to: Mature, a character from The King of Fighters series "Mature 17+", a rating in the Entertainment Software Rating Board video game rating system Victor Mature (1913-1999), American actor Immature (band), an American boy band

Roland

Roland (pronounced [ʁɔ.lɑ̃]; Old Frankish: *Hrōþiland; Medieval Latin: Hruodlandus or Rotholandus; Italian: Orlando or Rolando; died 15 August 778) was a Frankish military leader under Charlemagne who became one of the principal figures in the literary cycle known as the Matter of France. 　The historical Roland was military governor of the Breton March, responsible for defending Francia's frontier against the Bretons. 　His only historical attestation is in Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni, which notes he was part of the Frankish rearguard killed in retribution by the Basques in Iberia at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. 　The story of Roland's death at Roncevaux Pass was embellished in later medieval and Renaissance literature. 　The first and most famous of these epic treatments was the Old French Chanson de Roland of the 11th century. 　Two masterpieces of Italian Renaissance poetry, the Orlando Innamorato and Orlando Furioso (by Matteo Maria Boiardo and Ludovico Ariosto respectively), are even further detached from history than the earlier Chansons, similarly to the later Morgante by Luigi Pulci. 　Roland is poetically associated with his sword Durendal, his horse Veillantif, and his oliphant horn. 　In the late 17th century, French Baroque composer Jean-Baptiste Lully wrote an opera titled Roland, based on the story of the title character.

Harmonic

A harmonic is a wave with a frequency that is a positive integer multiple of the fundamental frequency, the frequency of the original periodic signal, such as a sinusoidal wave. 　The original signal is also called the 1st harmonic, the other harmonics are known as higher harmonics. 　As all harmonics are periodic at the fundamental frequency, the sum of harmonics is also periodic at that frequency. 　The set of harmonics forms a harmonic series. 　The term is employed in various disciplines, including music, physics, acoustics, electronic power transmission, radio technology, and other fields. 　For example, if the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, a common AC power supply frequency, the frequencies of the first three higher harmonics are 100 Hz (2nd harmonic), 150 Hz (3rd harmonic), 200 Hz (4th harmonic) and any addition of waves with these frequencies is periodic at 50 Hz. 　An nth characteristic mode, for n > 1, will have nodes that are not vibrating. 　For example, the 3rd characteristic mode will have nodes at 1 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{3}}} L and 2 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} L, where L is the length of the string. 　In fact, each nth characteristic mode, for n not a multiple of 3, will not have nodes at these points. 　These other characteristic modes will be vibrating at the positions 1 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{3}}} L and 2 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} L. If the player gently touches one of these positions, then these other characteristic modes will be suppressed. 　The tonal harmonics from these other characteristic modes will then also be suppressed. 　Consequently, the tonal harmonics from the nth characteristic modes, where n is a multiple of 3, will be made relatively more prominent. 　In music, harmonics are used on string instruments and wind instruments as a way of producing sound on the instrument, particularly to play higher notes and, with strings, obtain notes that have a unique sound quality or "tone colour". 　On strings, bowed harmonics have a "glassy", pure tone. 　On stringed instruments, harmonics are played by touching (but not fully pressing down the string) at an exact point on the string while sounding the string (plucking, bowing, etc.); this allows the harmonic to sound, a pitch which is always higher than the fundamental frequency of the string.

Fountain

A fountain, from the Latin "fons" (genitive "fontis"), meaning source or spring, is a decorative reservoir used for discharging water. 　It is also a structure that jets water into the air for a decorative or dramatic effect. 　Fountains were originally purely functional, connected to springs or aqueducts and used to provide drinking water and water for bathing and washing to the residents of cities, towns and villages. 　Until the late 19th century most fountains operated by gravity, and needed a source of water higher than the fountain, such as a reservoir or aqueduct, to make the water flow or jet into the air. 　In addition to providing drinking water, fountains were used for decoration and to celebrate their builders. 　Roman fountains were decorated with bronze or stone masks of animals or heroes. 　In the Middle Ages, Moorish and Muslim garden designers used fountains to create miniature versions of the gardens of paradise. 　King Louis XIV of France used fountains in the Gardens of Versailles to illustrate his power over nature. 　The baroque decorative fountains of Rome in the 17th and 18th centuries marked the arrival point of restored Roman aqueducts and glorified the Popes who built them. 　By the end of the 19th century, as indoor plumbing became the main source of drinking water, urban fountains became purely decorative. 　Mechanical pumps replaced gravity and allowed fountains to recycle water and to force it high into the air. 　The Jet d'Eau in Lake Geneva, built in 1951, shoots water 140 metres (460 ft) in the air. 　The highest such fountain in the world is King Fahd's Fountain in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, which spouts water 260 metres (850 ft) above the Red Sea. 　Fountains are used today to decorate city parks and squares; to honor individuals or events; for recreation and for entertainment. 　A splash pad or spray pool allows city residents to enter, get wet and cool off in summer. 　The musical fountain combines moving jets of water, colored lights and recorded music, controlled by a computer, for dramatic effects. 　Fountains can themselves also be musical instruments played by obstruction of one or more of their water jets. 　Drinking fountains provide clean drinking water in public buildings, parks and public spaces.

Echo

In audio signal processing and acoustics, an echo is a reflection of sound that arrives at the listener with a delay after the direct sound. 　The delay is directly proportional to the distance of the reflecting surface from the source and the listener. 　Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well, by a building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. 　A true echo is a single reflection of the sound source.　[citation needed] The word echo derives from the Greek ἠχώ (ēchō), itself from ἦχος (ēchos), "sound". 　Echo in the Greek folk story is a mountain nymph whose ability to speak was cursed, leaving her able only to repeat the last words spoken to her. 　Some animals use echo for location sensing and navigation, such as cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and bats in a process known as echolocation. 　Echoes are also the basis of Sonar technology.

Echo (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Echo (/ˈɛkoʊ/; Greek: Ἠχώ, Ēkhō, "echo", from ἦχος (ēchos), "sound") was an Oread who resided on Mount Cithaeron. 　Zeus loved consorting with beautiful nymphs and often visited them on Earth. 　Eventually, Zeus's wife, Hera, became suspicious, and came from Mount Olympus in an attempt to catch Zeus with the nymphs. 　Echo, by trying to protect Zeus (as he had ordered her to do), endured Hera's wrath, and Hera made her only able to speak the last words spoken to her. 　So when Echo met Narcissus and fell in love with him, she was unable to tell him how she felt and was forced to watch him as he fell in love with himself.

Currency

Look up currency in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　A currency is a standardization of money in any form, in use or circulation as a medium of exchange, for example banknotes and coins. 　A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use within a specific environment over time, especially for people in a nation state. 　Under this definition, the British Pound Sterling (£), euros (€), Japanese yen (¥), and U.S. dollars (US$) are examples of (government-issued) fiat currencies. 　Currencies may act as stores of value and be traded between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. 　Currencies in this sense are either chosen by users or decreed by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance; i.e., legal tender laws may require a particular unit of account for payments to government agencies. 　Other definitions of the term "currency" appear in the respective synonymous articles: banknote, coin, and money. 　This article uses the definition which focuses on the currency systems of countries. 　One can classify currencies into three monetary systems: fiat money, commodity money, and representative money, depending on what guarantees a currency's value (the economy at large vs. the government's physical metal reserves). 　Some currencies function as legal tender in certain jurisdictions, or for specific purposes, such as payment to a government (taxes), or government agencies (fees, fines). 　Others simply get traded for their economic value. 　Digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. 　Whether government-backed digital notes and coins (such as the digital renminbi in China, for example) will be successfully developed and utilized remains dubious. 　Decentralized digital currencies, such as cryptocurrencies, are different because they are not issued by a government monetary authority; specifically, bitcoin, the first cryptocurrency and leader in terms of market capitalization, has a fixed supply and is therefore ostensibly deflationary. 　Many warnings issued by various countries note the opportunities that cryptocurrencies create for illegal activities such as scams, ransomware, money laundering and terrorism. 　In 2014, the United States IRS issued a statement explaining that virtual currency is treated as property for Federal income-tax purposes, and it provide examples of how long-standing tax principles applicable to transactions involving property apply to virtual currency.

Guild

A guild (/ɡɪld/ GILD) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. 　The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. 　They sometimes depended on grants of letters patent from a monarch or other ruler to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials, but most were regulated by the city government. 　Guild members found guilty of cheating the public would be fined or banned from the guild. 　A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as guild meeting-places. 　Typically the key "privilege" was that only guild members were allowed to sell their goods or practice their skill within the city. 　There might be controls on minimum or maximum prices, hours of trading, numbers of apprentices, and many other things. 　Critics argued that these rules reduced free competition, but defenders maintained that they protected professional standards. 　An important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna (established in 1088), Oxford (at least since 1096) and Paris (c. 1150); they originated as guilds of students (as at Bologna) or of masters (as at Paris).

Prophet

In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people. 　The message that the prophet conveys is called a prophecy. 　Claims of prophethood have existed in many cultures and religions throughout history, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, ancient Greek religion, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Hinduism , and many others.

Breed

A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species. 　In literature, there exist several slightly deviating definitions. 　Breeds are formed through genetic isolation and either natural adaptation to the environment or selective breeding, or a combination of the two. 　Despite the centrality of the idea of "breeds" to animal husbandry and agriculture, no single, scientifically accepted definition of the term exists.　: 340  A breed is therefore not an objective or biologically verifiable classification but is instead a term of art amongst groups of breeders who share a consensus around what qualities make some members of a given species members of a nameable subset. 　Another point of view is that a breed is consistent enough in type to be logically grouped together and when mated within the group produce the same type. 　When bred together, individuals of the same breed pass on these predictable traits to their offspring, and this ability – known as "breeding true" – is a requirement for a breed. 　Plant breeds are more commonly known as cultivars. 　The offspring produced as a result of breeding animals of one breed with other animals of another breed are known as crossbreeds or mixed breeds. 　Crosses between animal or plant variants above the level of breed/cultivar (i.e. between species, subspecies, botanical variety, even different genera) are referred to as hybrids.

Hamburg

Hamburg (German: [ˈhambʊʁk] (listen), locally also [ˈhambʊɪ̯ç] (listen); Low Saxon: Hamborg [ˈhambɔːç] (listen)), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (German: Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg; Low Saxon: Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg), is the second-largest city in Germany after Berlin, as well as the overall 7th largest city and largest non-capital city in the European Union with a population of over 1.85 million. 　Hamburg is 941 km2 in area. 　Hamburg's urban area has a population of around 2.5 million and is part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region, which has a population of over 5.1 million people in total. 　The city lies on the River Elbe and two of its tributaries, the River Alster and the River Bille. 　One of Germany's 16 federated states, Hamburg is surrounded by Schleswig-Holstein to the north and Lower Saxony to the south. 　The official name reflects Hamburg's history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League and a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. 　Before the 1871 unification of Germany, it was a fully sovereign city state, and before 1919 formed a civic republic headed constitutionally by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. 　Beset by disasters such as the Great Fire of Hamburg, North Sea flood of 1962 and military conflicts including World War II bombing raids, the city has managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. 　Hamburg is Europe's third largest port, after Rotterdam and Antwerp. 　Major regional broadcaster NDR, the printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr and the newspapers Der Spiegel and Die Zeit are based in the city. 　Hamburg is the seat of Germany's oldest stock exchange and the world's oldest merchant bank, Berenberg Bank. 　Media, commercial, logistical, and industrial firms with significant locations in the city include multinationals Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf, and Unilever. 　Hamburg is also a major European science, research, and education hub, with several universities and institutions. 　The city enjoys a very high quality of living, being ranked 19th in the 2019 Mercer Quality of Living Survey. 　Hamburg hosts specialists in world economics and international law, including consular and diplomatic missions as the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the EU-LAC Foundation, and the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, multipartite international political conferences and summits such as Europe and China and the G20. 　Both former German chancellors Helmut Schmidt and Angela Merkel were born in Hamburg. 　The former Mayor of Hamburg, Olaf Scholz, has been the current German chancellor since December 2021. 　Hamburg is a major international and domestic tourist destination. 　The Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 2015. 　Hamburg's rivers and canals are crossed by around 2,500 bridges, making it the city with the highest number of bridges in Europe. 　Aside from its rich architectural heritage, the city is also home to notable cultural venues such as the Elbphilharmonie and Laeiszhalle concert halls. 　It gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule and paved the way for bands including the Beatles. 　Hamburg is also known for several theatres and a variety of musical shows. 　St. Pauli's Reeperbahn is among the best-known European entertainment districts.

Frustration

In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment. 　Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. 　There are two types of frustration: internal and external. 　Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals, desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. 　Conflict, such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, can also be an internal source of frustration or annoyance and can create cognitive dissonance. 　External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual's control, such as a physical roadblock, a difficult task, or the perception of wasting time. 　There are multiple ways individuals cope with frustration such as passive–aggressive behavior, anger, or violence, although frustration may also propel positive processes via enhanced effort and strive. 　This broad range of potential outcomes makes it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of frustration, as the responses may be indirect. 　However, a more direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression.