Marshal

Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. 　As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, the title grew in reputation. 　During the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. 　In most countries, the rank of Marshal is the highest Army rank (equivalent to a five-star General of the Army in the United States).

Amazon

Look up Amazon or amazon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Amazon most often refers to: Amazon River, in South America Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin Amazon (company), an American multinational technology company Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek mythology Amazon or Amazone may also refer to:

Manila

Manila (/məˈnɪlə/ mə-NIL-ə, Spanish: [maˈnila]; Filipino: Maynila, pronounced [majˈnilaʔ]), officially City of Manila (Filipino: Lungsod ng Maynila, [luŋˈsod nɐŋ majˈnilaʔ]), is the capital of the Philippines and its second-most populous city. 　Manila is located on the eastern shore of Manila Bay on the island of Luzon. 　It is highly urbanized and as of 2019, was the world's most densely populated city proper. 　Manila is considered to be a global city and is rated as an Alpha – City by Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC). 　It was the first chartered city in the country, and was designated as such by the Philippine Commission Act 183 of July 31, 1901. 　It became autonomous with the passage of Republic Act No. 409, "The Revised Charter of the City of Manila", on June 18, 1949. 　Manila is considered to be part of the world's original set of global cities because its commercial networks were the first to extend across the Pacific Ocean and connect Asia with the Spanish Americas through the galleon trade; when this was accomplished, it was the first time an uninterrupted chain of trade routes circling the planet had been established. 　Manila is among the most-populous and fastest-growing cities in Southeast Asia. 　By 1258, a Tagalog-fortified polity called Maynila existed on the site of modern Manila. 　On June 24, 1571, after the defeat of the polity's last indigenous Rajah Sulayman III in the Battle of Bangkusay, Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi began constructing the walled fortification Intramuros on the ruins of an older settlement from whose name the Spanish-and-English name Manila derives. 　Manila was used as the capital of the captaincy general of the Spanish East Indies, which included the Marianas, Guam and other islands, and was controlled and administered for the Spanish crown by Mexico City in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. 　Today, Manila has many historic sites. 　In modern times, the name "Manila" is commonly used to refer to the whole metropolitan area, the greater metropolitan area, and the city proper. 　Metro Manila, the officially defined metropolitan area, is the capital region of the Philippines, and includes the much-larger Quezon City and Makati Central Business District. 　It is the most-populous region in the country, one of the most-populous urban areas in the world, and one of the wealthiest regions in Southeast Asia. 　The city proper was home to 1,846,513 people in 2020,  and is the historic core of a built-up area that extends well beyond its administrative limits. 　With 71,263 people per square kilometer, Manila is the most densely populated city proper in the world.  　The Pasig River flows through the middle of the city, dividing it into north and south sections. 　The city comprises 16 administrative districts and is divided into six political districts for the purposes of representation in the Congress of the Philippines and the election of city council members. 　In 2018, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network listed Manila as an "Alpha-" global city, and ranked it seventh in economic performance globally and second regionally, while the Global Financial Centres Index ranks Manila 79th in the world.

Cottage

A cottage, during England's feudal period, was the holding by a cottager (known as a cotter or bordar) of a small house with enough garden to feed a family and in return for the cottage, the cottager had to provide some form of service to the manorial lord. 　However, in time cottage just became the general term for a small house. 　In modern usage, a cottage is usually a modest, often cosy dwelling, typically in a rural or semi-rural location and not necessarily in England. 　The cottage orné, often quite large and grand residences built by the nobility, dates back to a movement of "rustic" stylised cottages of the late 18th and early 19th century during the Romantic movement. 　In British English the term now denotes a small dwelling of traditional build, although it can also be applied to modern construction designed to resemble traditional houses ("mock cottages"). 　Cottages may be detached houses, or terraced, such as those built to house workers in mining villages. 　The tied accommodation provided to farm workers was usually a cottage, see cottage garden. 　In England the term holiday cottage now denotes a specialised form of residential let property, attracting various tax benefits to the owner. 　The holiday cottage exists in many cultures under different names. 　In American English, "cottage" is one term for such holiday homes, although they may also be called a "cabin", "chalet", or even "camp". 　In Australia, the term "cabin" is common, cottage usually referring to a smaller pre-modern period dwelling. 　In certain countries (e.g. Nordics, Baltics, and Russia) the term "cottage" has local synonyms: In Finnish mökki, in Estonian suvila, in Latvian vasarnīca, in Livonian sõvvõkuodā, in Swedish stuga, in Norwegian hytte (from the German word Hütte), in Czech or Slovak chata or chalupa, in Russian дача (dacha, which can refer to a vacation/summer home, often located near a body of water). 　In places such as Canada, "cottage" carries no connotations of size (compare with vicarage or hermitage).

Panama

Coordinates: 9°N 80°W / 9°N 80°W / 9; -80 Panama (/ˈpænəmɑː/ (listen) PAN-ə-mah, /pænəˈmɑː/ pan-ə-MAH; Spanish: Panamá IPA: [panaˈma] (listen)), officially the Republic of Panama (Spanish: República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. 　It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the south. 　Its capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half the country's 4 million people. 　Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Spanish colonists arrived in the 16th century. 　It broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined the Republic of Gran Colombia, a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela. 　After Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada eventually became the Republic of Colombia. 　With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, allowing the construction of the Panama Canal to be completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. 　The 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties agreed to transfer the canal from the United States to Panama on December 31, 1999. 　The surrounding territory was first returned in 1979. 　Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panama's GDP, although commerce, banking, and tourism are major and growing sectors. 　It is regarded as having a high-income economy. 　In 2019 Panama ranked 57th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. 　In 2018, Panama was ranked the seventh-most competitive economy in Latin America, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Index. 　Covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panama's jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them found nowhere else on earth. 　Panama is a founding member of the United Nations and other international organizations such as OAS, LAIA, G77, WHO, and NAM.

Violin

The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden chordophone (string instrument) in the violin family. 　Most violins have a hollow wooden body. 　It is the smallest and thus highest-pitched instrument (soprano) in the family in regular use. 　The violin typically has four strings (some can have five), usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings. 　It can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers (pizzicato) and, in specialized cases, by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow (col legno). 　Violins are important instruments in a wide variety of musical genres. 　They are most prominent in the Western classical tradition, both in ensembles (from chamber music to orchestras) and as solo instruments. 　Violins are also important in many varieties of folk music, including country music, bluegrass music, and in jazz. 　Electric violins with solid bodies and piezoelectric pickups are used in some forms of rock music and jazz fusion, with the pickups plugged into instrument amplifiers and speakers to produce sound. 　The violin has come to be incorporated in many non-Western music cultures, including Indian music and Iranian music. 　The name fiddle is often used regardless of the type of music played on it. 　The violin was first known in 16th-century Italy, with some further modifications occurring in the 18th and 19th centuries to give the instrument a more powerful sound and projection. 　In Europe, it served as the basis for the development of other stringed instruments used in Western classical music, such as the viola. 　Violinists and collectors particularly prize the fine historical instruments made by the Stradivari, Guarneri, Guadagnini and Amati families from the 16th to the 18th century in Brescia and Cremona (Italy) and by Jacob Stainer in Austria. 　According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. 　Great numbers of instruments have come from the hands of less famous makers, as well as still greater numbers of mass-produced commercial "trade violins" coming from cottage industries in places such as Saxony, Bohemia, and Mirecourt. 　Many of these trade instruments were formerly sold by Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other mass merchandisers. 　The components of a violin are usually made from different types of wood. 　Violins can be strung with gut, Perlon or other synthetic, or steel strings. 　A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier or violinmaker. 　One who makes or repairs bows is called an archetier or bowmaker.

Sparse

Sparse is a computer software tool designed to find possible coding faults in the Linux kernel. 　Unlike other such tools, this static analysis tool was initially designed to only flag constructs that were likely to be of interest to kernel developers, such as the mixing of pointers to user and kernel address spaces. 　Sparse checks for known problems and allows the developer to include annotations in the code that convey information about data types, such as the address space that pointers point to and the locks that a function acquires or releases. 　Linus Torvalds started writing Sparse in 2003. 　Josh Triplett was its maintainer from 2006, a role taken over by Christopher Li in 2009 and by Luc Van Oostenryck in November 2018. 　Sparse is released under the MIT License.

Flooding (psychology)

Flooding, sometimes referred to as in vivo exposure therapy, is a form of behavior therapy and desensitization—or exposure therapy—based on the principles of respondent conditioning. 　As a psychotherapeutic technique, it is used to treat phobia and anxiety disorders including post-traumatic stress disorder. 　It works by exposing the patient to their painful memories, with the goal of reintegrating their repressed emotions with their current awareness. 　Flooding was invented by psychologist Thomas Stampfl in 1967. 　It is still used in behavior therapy today. 　Flooding is a psychotherapeutic method for overcoming phobias. 　In order to demonstrate the irrationality of the fear, a psychologist would put a person in a situation where they would face their phobia. 　Under controlled conditions and using psychologically-proven relaxation techniques, the subject attempts to replace their fear with relaxation. 　The experience can often be traumatic for a person, but may be necessary if the phobia is causing them significant life disturbances. 　The advantage to flooding is that it is quick and usually effective. 　There is, however, a possibility that a fear may spontaneously recur. 　This can be made less likely with systematic desensitization, another form of a classical condition procedure for the elimination of phobias.

Jumping

Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or non-living (e.g., robotic) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. 　Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne, by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch. 　Some animals, such as the kangaroo, employ jumping (commonly called hopping in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion, while others, such as frogs, use it only as a means to escape predators. 　Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump, high jump and show jumping.

Mercury (mythology)

Mercury (/ˈmɜːrkjʊri/; Latin: Mercurius [mɛrˈkʊrijʊs] (listen)) is a major god in Roman religion and mythology, being one of the 12 Dii Consentes within the ancient Roman pantheon. 　He is the god of financial gain, commerce, eloquence, messages, communication (including divination), travelers, boundaries, luck, trickery, and thieves; he also serves as the guide of souls to the underworld. 　In Roman mythology, he was considered to be either the son of Maia, one of the seven daughters of the Titan Atlas, and Jupiter, or of Caelus and Dies. 　In his earliest forms, he appears to have been related to the Etruscan deity Turms; both gods share characteristics with the Greek god Hermes. 　He is often depicted holding the caduceus in his left hand. 　Similar to his Greek equivalent Hermes, he was awarded a magic wand by Apollo, which later turned into the caduceus, the staff with intertwined snakes.

Coin

Currency A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. 　They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. 　They are most often issued by a government. 　Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. 　Obverse and its opposite, reverse, refer to the two flat faces of coins and medals. 　In this usage, obverse means the front face of the object and reverse means the back face. 　The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as tails. 　Coins are generally made of metal or an alloy, or sometimes of man-made materials. 　They are usually disc shaped. 　Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. 　Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. 　Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. 　In the last hundred years, the face value of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to inflation. 　If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). 　Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. 　Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. 　While the Eagle, and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not. 　Historically, a considerable variety of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.

Fever

Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. 　There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between 37.2 and 38.3 °C (99.0 and 100.9 °F) in humans. 　The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold or chills. 　This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. 　When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. 　Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure, with this being more common in young children. 　Fevers do not typically go higher than 41 to 42 °C (106 to 108 °F). 　A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from non-serious to life-threatening. 　This includes viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections—such as influenza, the common cold, meningitis, urinary tract infections, appendicitis, Lassa, COVID-19, and malaria. 　Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, connective tissue disease, side effects of medication or vaccination, and cancer. 　It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss. 　Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required. 　Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest. 　Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature. 　Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms. 　Hyperthermia requires treatment. 　Fever is one of the most common medical signs. 　It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. 　While fever evolved as a defense mechanism, treating a fever does not appear to improve or worsen outcomes. 　Fever is often viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than is usually deserved, a phenomenon known as fever phobia.

Fold (geology)

In structural geology, a fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, that are bent or curved during permanent deformation. 　Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. 　They occur as single isolated folds or in periodic sets (known as fold trains). 　Synsedimentary folds are those formed during sedimentary deposition. 　Folds form under varied conditions of stress, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. 　A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. 　Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.

Curriculum

In education, a curriculum (/kəˈrɪkjʊləm/; PL: curricula /kəˈrɪkjʊlə/ or curriculums) is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. 　The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals. 　A curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. 　Curricula are split into several categories: the explicit, the implicit (including the hidden), the excluded, and the extracurricular. 　Curricula may be tightly standardized or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. 　Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdom's National Curriculum. 　UNESCO's International Bureau of Education has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide.

Relaxation (psychology)

Relaxation in psychology is the emotional state of low tension, in which there is an absence of arousal, particularly from negative sources such as anger, anxiety, or fear. 　According to Oxford Dictionaries relaxation is when the body and mind are free from tension and anxiety. 　Relaxation is a form of mild ecstasy coming from the frontal lobe of the brain in which the backward cortex sends signals to the frontal cortex via a mild sedative.　[citation needed] Relaxation can be achieved through meditation, autogenics, and progressive muscle relaxation. 　Relaxation helps improve coping with stress. 　Stress is the leading cause of mental problems and physical problems, therefore feeling relaxed is beneficial for a person's health. 　When we are stressed, the sympathetic nervous system is activated because we are in a fight-or-flight response mode; over time, this could have negative effects on a human body.

Relaxation

Relaxation stands quite generally for a release of tension, a return to equilibrium. 　Look up relaxation or relaxed in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Wikiquote has quotations related to Relaxation. 　In the sciences, the term is used in the following ways: Relaxation (physics), and more in particular: Relaxation (NMR), processes by which nuclear magnetization returns to the equilibrium distribution Dielectric relaxation, the delay in the dielectric constant of a material Vibrational energy relaxation, the process by which molecules in high energy quantum states return to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution Chemical relaxation methods, related to temperature jump Relaxation oscillator, a type of electronic oscillator In mathematics: Relaxation (approximation), a technique for transforming hard constraints into easier ones Relaxation (iterative method), a technique for the numerical solution of equations Relaxation (extension method), a technique for a natural extension in mathematical optimization or variational problems In computer science: Relaxation (computing), the act of substituting alternative program code during linking In physiology, hypnosis, meditation, recreation: Relaxation (psychology), the emotional state of low tension Relaxation technique, an activity that helps a person to relax Relaxation can induced using breathing techniques. 　Long exhalation creates a relaxed pose. 　Making the temple of head and the upper lips relaxed helps keep a relaxed state. 　In ecclesiastical law: relaxation in person, transfer of a condemned person so that secular authorities execute a death sentence

Shrine

A shrine (Latin: scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: escrin "box or case") is a sacred or holy space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of respect, wherein they are venerated or worshipped. 　Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other such objects associated with the figure being venerated. 　A shrine at which votive offerings are made is called an altar. 　Shrines are found in many of the world's religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion, Shinto, indigenous Philippine folk religions, and Asatru as well as in secular and non-religious settings such as a war memorial. 　Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, museums, or in the home. 　However, portable shrines are also found in some cultures.

Pet

A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock, or a laboratory animal. 　Popular pets are often considered to have attractive/cute appearances, intelligence, and relatable personalities, but some pets may be taken in on an altruistic basis (such as a stray animal) and accepted by the owner regardless of these characteristics. 　Two of the most popular pets are dogs and cats. 　Other animals commonly kept include rabbits; ferrets; pigs; rodents such as gerbils, hamsters, chinchillas, rats, mice, and guinea pigs; birds such as parrots, passerines, and fowls; reptiles such as turtles, lizards, snakes, and iguanas; aquatic pets such as fish, freshwater snails, and saltwater snails; amphibians such as frogs and salamanders; and arthropod pets such as tarantulas and hermit crabs. 　Small pets may be grouped together as pocket pets, while the equine and bovine group include the largest companion animals. 　Pets provide their owners (or "guardians") both physical and emotional benefits. 　Walking a dog can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air, and social interaction. 　Pets can give companionship to people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social interaction with other people. 　There is a medically approved class of therapy animals, that are brought to visit confined humans, such as children in hospitals or elders in nursing homes. 　Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve specific physical, social, cognitive, or emotional goals with patients. 　People most commonly get pets for companionship, to protect a home or property or because of the perceived beauty or attractiveness of the animals. 　A 1994 Canadian study found that the most common reasons for not owning a pet were lack of ability to care for the pet when traveling (34.6%), lack of time (28.6%), and lack of suitable housing (28.3%), with dislike of pets being less common (19.6%). 　Some scholars, ethicists, and animal rights organizations have raised concerns over keeping pets because of the lack of autonomy and the objectification of non-human animals.

Photograph

A photograph (also known as a photo, image, or picture) is an image created by light falling on a photosensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic image sensor, such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. 　Most photographs are now created using a smartphone/camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see. 　The process and practice of creating such images is called photography.

Dialect

The term dialect (from Latin dialectus, dialectos, from the Ancient Greek word διάλεκτος, diálektos 'discourse', from διά, diá 'through' and λέγω, légō 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of linguistic phenomena: One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. 　Under this definition, the dialects or varieties of a particular language are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible, especially if close to one another on the dialect continuum. 　The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity. 　A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect, and a geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect'). 　According to this definition, any variety of a given language can be classified as a "dialect", including any standardized varieties. 　In this case, the distinction between the "standard language" (i.e. the "standard" dialect of a particular language) and the "nonstandard" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence. 　In a similar way, the definitions of the terms "language" and "dialect" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives. 　The term "dialect" is however sometimes restricted to mean "non-standard variety", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions. 　The other usage of the term "dialect", specific to colloquial settings in a few countries like Italy (see dialetto), France (see patois), much of East Central Europe, and the Philippines, carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language. 　In this case, these "dialects" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from the politically dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties, but they evolved in a separate and parallel way and may thus better fit various parties' criteria for a separate language. 　These "dialects" may be historically cognate with and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may even, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter. 　However, in this sense, unlike in the first usage, these "dialects" may be better defined as separate languages from the standard or national language and the standard or national language would not itself be considered a "dialect", as it is the dominant language in a particular state, be it in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political (e.g. official) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. 　The term "dialect" used this way implies a political connotation, being mostly used to refer to low-prestige languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language), languages lacking institutional support, or those perceived as "unsuitable for writing". 　The designation "dialect" is also used popularly to refer to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term "vernacular language" would be preferred by linguists. 　Features that distinguish dialects from each other can be found in lexicon (vocabulary) and grammar, as well as in pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). 　Where the salient distinctions are only or mostly to be observed in pronunciation, the more specific term accent may be used instead of dialect. 　Differences that are largely concentrated in lexicon may be creoles in their own right. 　When lexical differences are mostly concentrated in the specialized vocabulary of a profession or other organization, they are jargons; differences in vocabulary that are deliberately cultivated to exclude outsiders or to serve as shibboleths are known as cryptolects (or "cant") and include slangs and argots. 　The particular speech patterns used by an individual are referred to as that person's idiolect. 　To classify subsets of language as dialects, linguists take into account linguistic distance. 　The dialects of a language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form. 　Some dialects of a language are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, leading to debate as to whether they are regiolects or separate languages.

Vermont

Vermont (/vərˈmɒnt/ (listen)) is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. 　Vermont is bordered by the states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, and New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. 　Admitted to the union in 1791 as the 14th state, it is the only state in New England not bordered by the Atlantic Ocean. 　According to the 2020 U.S. census, the state has a population of 643,503, ranking it the second least-populated in the U.S. after Wyoming. 　It is also the nation's sixth-smallest state in area. 　The state's capital Montpelier is the least-populous state capital in the U.S., while its most-populous city, Burlington, is the least-populous to be a state's largest. 　For some 12,000 years, indigenous peoples have inhabited this area. 　The competitive tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Iroquoian-speaking Mohawk were active in the area at the time of European encounter. 　During the 17th century, French colonists claimed the territory as part of the Kingdom of France's colony of New France. 　After the Kingdom of Great Britain began to settle colonies to the south along the Atlantic coast, the two nations competed in North America in addition to Europe. 　After being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years' War, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain. 　Thereafter, the nearby British Thirteen Colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed the extent of the area called the New Hampshire Grants to the west of the Connecticut River, encompassing present-day Vermont. 　The provincial government of New York sold land grants to settlers in the region, which conflicted with earlier grants from the government of New Hampshire. 　The Green Mountain Boys militia protected the interests of the established New Hampshire land grant settlers against the newly arrived settlers with land titles granted by New York. 　Ultimately, a group of settlers with New Hampshire land grant titles established the Vermont Republic in 1777 as an independent state during the American Revolutionary War. 　The Vermont Republic abolished slavery before any of the other states. 　During the mid-19th century, Vermont was a strong source of abolitionist sentiment, although it was also tied to King Cotton through the development of textile mills in the region, which relied on southern cotton. 　It sent a significant contingent of soldiers to participate in the American Civil War. 　The geography of the state is marked by the Green Mountains, which run north–south up the middle of the state, separating Lake Champlain and other valley terrain on the west from the Connecticut River valley that defines much of its eastern border. 　A majority of its terrain is forested with hardwoods and conifers, and a majority of its open land is devoted to agriculture. 　The state's climate is characterized by warm, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. 　Vermont's economic activity of $34 billion in 2018 ranked last on the list of U.S. states and territories by GDP but 34th in GDP per capita. 　In 2000, the state legislature was the first to recognize civil unions for same-sex couples. 　As of 2014[update], the state ranked 14th on the American Human Development Index.

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. 　Matter waves and acoustic waves can also be considered forms of radiative energy, and recently gravitational waves have been associated with a spectral signature in the context of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) In simpler terms, spectroscopy is the precise study of color as generalized from visible light to all bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. 　Historically, spectroscopy originated as the study of the wavelength dependence of the absorption by gas phase matter of visible light dispersed by a prism. 　Spectroscopy, primarily in the electromagnetic spectrum, is a fundamental exploratory tool in the fields of astronomy, chemistry, materials science, and physics, allowing the composition, physical structure and electronic structure of matter to be investigated at the atomic, molecular and macro scale, and over astronomical distances. 　Important applications include biomedical spectroscopy in the areas of tissue analysis and medical imaging.

Ammunition

Ammunition is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. 　Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other weapons that create the effect on a target (e.g., bullets and warheads). 　The purpose of ammunition is to project a force against a selected target to have an effect (usually, but not always, lethal). 　An example of ammunition is the firearm cartridge, which includes all components required to deliver the weapon effect in a single package. 　Until the 20th century, black powder was the most common propellant used but has now been replaced in nearly all cases by modern compounds. 　Ammunition comes in a great range of sizes and types and is often designed to work only in specific weapons systems. 　However, there are internationally recognized standards for certain ammunition types (e.g., 5.56×45mm NATO) that enable their use across different weapons and by different users. 　There are also specific types of ammunition that are designed to have a specialized effect on a target, such as armor-piercing shells and tracer ammunition, used only in certain circumstances. 　Ammunition is commonly labeled or colored in a specific manner to assist in its identification and to prevent the wrong ammunition types from being used accidentally or inappropriately.

Nerve

A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers (called axons) in the peripheral nervous system. 　Axons transmit electrical impulses. 　Nerves have historically been considered the basic units of the peripheral nervous system. 　A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses called action potentials that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the central nervous system. 　Each axon, within the nerve, is an extension of an individual neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin. 　Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the endoneurium. 　The axons are bundled together into groups called fascicles, and each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the perineurium. 　Finally, the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium. 　Nerve cells (often called neurons) are further classified as sensory, motor, or mixed nerves. 　In the central nervous system, the analogous structures are known as nerve tracts.