Lens

A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. 　A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (elements), usually arranged along a common axis. 　Lenses are made from materials such as glass or plastic and are ground, polished, or molded to the required shape. 　A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, which refracts light without focusing. 　Devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called "lenses", such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses. 　Lenses are used in various imaging devices like telescopes, binoculars, and cameras. 　They are also used as visual aids in glasses to correct defects of vision such as myopia and hypermetropia.

Lens (hydrology)

In hydrology, a lens, also called freshwater lens or Ghyben-Herzberg lens, is a convex-shaped layer of fresh groundwater that floats above the denser saltwater and is usually found on small coral or limestone islands and atolls. 　This aquifer of fresh water is recharged through precipitation that infiltrates the top layer of soil and percolates downward until it reaches the saturated zone. 　The recharge rate of the lens can be summarized by the following equation: R = p − E T {\displaystyle R=p-ET} Where R {\displaystyle R} is the recharge rate in meters, p {\displaystyle p} is precipitation (m), and E T {\displaystyle ET} is evapotranspiration (m) of water. 　With higher amounts of recharge, the hydraulic head is increased, and a thick freshwater lens is maintained through the dry season. 　Lower rates of precipitation or higher rates of interception and evapotranspiration will decrease the hydraulic head, resulting in a thin lens.

Lens (geology)

In geology, a lens or lentil is a body of ore or rock that is thick in the middle and thin at the edges, resembling a convex lens in cross-section. 　To thin out in all directions is to "lens out", also known as "lensing". 　The adjectives "lenticular" and "lentiform" are used to describe lens-like formations. 　Lenticle is a synonym for lentil, but may also refer to a fragment of rock that is lens-shaped. 　"Lenticule" is used for small lentil. 　A lentil may also refer a minor unit in a formation of rock, similar to a member but not generally spread out over a large geographical area. 　In this usage, the lentil thins out towards its edges. 　Lenticular bedding is a special form of rock interbedded mudrock and cross-laminated rippled sandstone. 　The lenses or ripples in lenticular beds are discontinuous in all directions.

Rape

Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without their consent. 　The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability, or is below the legal age of consent. 　The term rape is sometimes used interchangeably with the term sexual assault. 　The rate of reporting, prosecuting and convicting for rape varies between jurisdictions. 　Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police during 2008 ranged, per 100,000 people, from 0.2 in Azerbaijan to 92.9 in Botswana with 6.3 in Lithuania as the median. 　Worldwide, sexual violence, including rape, is primarily committed by males against females. 　Rape by strangers is usually less common than rape by people the victim knows, and male-on-male and female-on-female prison rapes are common and may be the least reported forms of rape. 　Widespread and systematic rape (e.g., war rape) and sexual slavery can occur during international conflict. 　These practices are crimes against humanity and war crimes. 　Rape is also recognized as an element of the crime of genocide when committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a targeted ethnic group. 　People who have been raped can be traumatized and develop post-traumatic stress disorder. 　Serious injuries can result along with the risk of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. 　A person may face violence or threats from the rapist, and, sometimes, from the victim's family and relatives.

Acceptance

Acceptance in human psychology is a person's assent to the reality of a situation, recognizing a process or condition (often a negative or uncomfortable situation) without attempting to change it or protest it. 　The concept is close in meaning to acquiescence, derived from the Latin acquiēscere (to find rest in).

Arrow

An arrow is a fin-stabilized projectile launched by a bow. 　A typical arrow usually consists of a long, stiff, straight shaft with a weighty (and usually sharp and pointed) arrowhead attached to the front end, multiple fin-like stabilizers called fletchings mounted near the rear, and a slot at the rear end called a nock for engaging the bowstring. 　A container or bag carrying additional arrows for convenient reloading is called a quiver. 　The use of bows and arrows by humans predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. 　A craftsman who makes arrows is a fletcher, and one that makes arrowheads is an arrowsmith.

Shade (mythology)

In poetry and literature, a shade (translating Greek σκιά, Latin umbra) is the spirit or ghost of a dead person, residing in the underworld. 　An underworld where the dead live in shadow was common to beliefs in the ancient Near East. 　In Biblical Hebrew, it was called tsalmaveth (צַלמָוֶת: lit. "death-shadow", "shadow of death") as an alternate term for Sheol. 　The Witch of Endor in the First Book of Samuel notably conjures the ghost (owb) of Samuel. 　Only select individuals were believed to be exempt from the fate of dwelling in shadow after death. 　They would instead ascend to the divine sphere, as is reflected in the veneration of heroes. 　Plutarch relates how Alexander the Great was inconsolable after the death of Hephaistion up to the moment he received an oracle of Ammon confirming that the deceased was a hero, i.e. enjoyed the status of a divinity. 　Shades appear in Book Eleven of Homer's Odyssey, when Odysseus descends into Hades, and in Book Six of Virgil's Aeneid, when Aeneas travels to the underworld. 　In the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri, many of the dead are similarly referred to as shades (Italian ombra), including Dante's guide, Virgil. 　The phrase "peace to thy gentle shade [and endless rest]" is sometimes seen in epitaphs, and was used by Alexander Pope in his epitaph for Nicholas Rowe.

Fence

A fence is a structure that encloses an area, typically outdoors, and is usually constructed from posts that are connected by boards, wire, rails or netting. 　A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length. 　Alternatives to fencing include a ditch (sometimes filled with water, forming a moat).

Similarity (psychology)

Similarity refers to the psychological degree of identity of two mental representations. 　It is fundamental to human cognition since it provides the basis for categorization of entities into kinds and for various other cognitive processes. 　It underpins our ability to interact with unknown entities by predicting how they will behave based on their similarity to entities we are familiar with. 　Research in cognitive psychology has taken a number of approaches to the concept of similarity. 　Each of them is related to a particular set of assumptions about knowledge representation.

Fur

Fur is a thick growth of hair that covers the skin of mammals. 　It consists of a combination of oily guard hair on top and thick underfur beneath. 　The guard hair keeps moisture from reaching the skin; the underfur acts as an insulating blanket that keeps the animal warm. 　The fur of mammals has many uses: protection, sensory purposes, waterproofing, and camouflaging, with the primary usage being thermoregulation. 　The types of hair include: 99  definitive, which may be shed after reaching a certain length; vibrissae, which are sensory hairs and are most commonly whiskers; pelage, which consists of guard hairs, under-fur, and awn hair; spines, which are a type of stiff guard hair used for defense in, for example, porcupines; bristles, which are long hairs usually used in visual signals, such as the mane of a lion; velli, often called "down fur", which insulates newborn mammals; and wool, which is long, soft, and often curly. 　Hair length is negligible in thermoregulation, as some tropical mammals, such as sloths, have the same fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. 　The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring 30 cm (12 in) as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F).　: 162–163  Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach 70 °C (158 °F) in the summer, but the skin stays at 40 °C (104 °F).　: 188  Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.　: 162–163  Mammalian coats are colored for a variety of reasons, the major selective pressures including camouflage, sexual selection, communication, and physiological processes such as temperature regulation. 　Camouflage is a powerful influence in many mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. 　Aposematism, warning off possible predators, is the most likely explanation of the black-and-white pelage of many mammals which are able to defend themselves, such as in the foul-smelling skunk and the powerful and aggressive honey badger. 　In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus), stoat (Mustela erminea), and snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven largely by camouflage. 　Differences in female and male coat color may indicate nutrition and hormone levels, important in mate selection. 　Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution. 　The green coloration of sloths, however, is the result of a symbiotic relationship with algae. 　Coat color is sometimes sexually dimorphic, as in many primate species. 　Coat color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected. 　Mammals with darker colored coats can absorb more heat from solar radiation and stay warmer; some smaller mammals, such as voles, have darker fur in the winter. 　The white, pigmentless fur of arctic mammals, such as the polar bear, may reflect more solar radiation directly onto the skin.　: 166–167  The term pelage – first known use in English c. 　1828 (French, from Middle French, from poil for 'hair', from Old French peilss, from Latin pilus) – is sometimes used to refer to an animal's complete coat. 　The term fur is also used to refer to animal pelts which have been processed into leather with their hair still attached. 　The words fur or furry are also used, more casually, to refer to hair-like growths or formations, particularly when the subject being referred to exhibits a dense coat of fine, soft "hairs". 　If layered, rather than grown as a single coat, it may consist of short down hairs, long guard hairs, and in some cases, medium awn hairs. 　Mammals with reduced amounts of fur are often called "naked", as with the naked mole-rat, or "hairless", as with hairless dogs. 　An animal with commercially valuable fur is known within the fur industry as a furbearer. 　The use of fur as clothing or decoration is controversial; animal welfare advocates object to the trapping and killing of wildlife, and to the confinement and killing of animals on fur farms.

Pond

A pond is an area filled with water, either natural or artificial, that is smaller than a lake. 　Defining them to be less than 5 hectares (12 acres) in area, less than 5 meters (16 ft) deep, and with less than 30% emergent vegetation helps in distinguishing their ecology from that of lakes and wetlands.　: 460  Ponds can be created by a wide variety of natural processes (e.g. on floodplains as cutoff river channels, by glacial processes, by peatland formation, in coastal dune systems, by beavers), or they can simply be isolated depressions (such as a kettle hole, vernal pool, prairie pothole, or simply natural undulations in undrained land) filled by runoff, groundwater, or precipitation, or all three of these. 　They can be further divided into four zones: vegetation zone, open water, bottom mud and surface film.　: 160–163  The size and depth of ponds often varies greatly with the time of year; many ponds are produced by spring flooding from rivers. 　Ponds may be freshwater or brackish in nature. 　'Ponds' with saltwater, with a direct connection to the sea that maintains full salinity, would normally be regarded as part of the marine environment because they would not support fresh or brackish water organisms, so not really within the realm of freshwater science. 　Ponds are usually by definition quite shallow water bodies with varying abundances of aquatic plants and animals. 　Depth, seasonal water level variations, nutrients fluxes, amount of light reaching the ponds, the shape, the presence of visiting large mammals, the composition of any fish communities and salinity can all affect the types of plant and animal communities present. 　Food webs are based both on free-floating algae and upon aquatic plants. 　There is usually a diverse array of aquatic life, with a few examples including algae, snails, fish, beetles, water bugs, frogs, turtles, otters and muskrats. 　Top predators may include large fish, herons, or alligators. 　Since fish are a major predator upon amphibian larvae, ponds that dry up each year, thereby killing resident fish, provide important refugia for amphibian breeding. 　Ponds that dry up completely each year are often known as vernal pools. 　Some ponds are produced by animal activity, including alligator holes and beaver ponds, and these add important diversity to landscapes. 　Ponds are frequently manmade or expanded beyond their original depths and bounds by anthropogenic causes. 　Apart from their role as highly biodiverse, fundamentally natural, freshwater ecosystems ponds have had, and still have, many uses, including providing water for agriculture, livestock and communities, aiding in habitat restoration, serving as breeding grounds for local and migrating species, decorative components of landscape architecture, flood control basins, general urbanization, interception basins for pollutants and sources and sinks of greenhouse gases.

Queens

Queens is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Queens County, in the U.S. state of New York. 　Located on Long Island, it is the largest New York City borough by area. 　It is bordered by the borough of Brooklyn at the western tip of Long Island to its west, and Nassau County to its east. 　Queens shares water borders with the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island (via the Rockaways). 　With a population of 2,405,464 as of the 2020 census, Queens is the second-most populous county in New York state, behind Kings County (Brooklyn), and is therefore also the second-most populous of the five New York City boroughs. 　If Queens were a city, it would be the fourth most-populous in the U.S. after New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago. 　Queens is the fourth-most densely populated borough in New York City and the fourth-most densely populated U.S. county. 　About 47% of its residents are foreign-born. 　Queens is the most linguistically diverse place on Earth and is one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the United States. 　Queens was established in 1683 as one of the original 12 counties of the Province of New York. 　The settlement was named after the English Queen and Portuguese royal princess Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705). 　From 1683 to 1899, the County of Queens included what is now Nassau County. 　Queens became a borough during the consolidation of New York City in 1898, combining the towns of Long Island City, Newtown, Flushing, Jamaica, and western Hempstead. 　All except Hempstead are today considered neighborhoods of Queens. 　Queens has the most diversified economy of the five boroughs of New York City. 　It is home to both of New York City's airports: John F. Kennedy and LaGuardia. 　Among its landmarks are Flushing Meadows–Corona Park; Citi Field, home to the New York Mets baseball team; the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, site of the U.S. Open tennis tournament; Kaufman Astoria Studios; Silvercup Studios; and the Aqueduct Racetrack. 　Flushing is undergoing rapid gentrification with investment by Chinese transnational entities, while Long Island City is undergoing gentrification secondary to its proximity across the East River from Manhattan. 　The borough's diverse housing ranges from high-rise apartment buildings in some areas of western and central Queens, such as Ozone Park, Jackson Heights, Flushing, Astoria, and Long Island City; to lower-rise neighborhoods in the eastern part of the borough.

Healing

With physical trauma or disease suffered by an organism, healing involves the repairing of damaged tissue(s), organs and the biological system as a whole and resumption of (normal) functioning. 　Medicine includes the process by which the cells in the body regenerate and repair to reduce the size of a damaged or necrotic area and replace it with new living tissue. 　The replacement can happen in two ways: by regeneration in which the necrotic cells are replaced by new cells that form "like" tissue as was originally there; or by repair in which injured tissue is replaced with scar tissue. 　Most organs will heal using a mixture of both mechanisms.　[citation needed] Within surgery, healing is more often referred to as recovery, and postoperative recovery has historically been viewed simply as restitution of function and readiness for discharge. 　More recently, it has been described as an energy‐requiring process to decrease physical symptoms, reach a level of emotional well‐being, regain functions, and re‐establish activities Healing is also referred to in the context of the grieving process.　[citation needed] In psychiatry and psychology, healing is the process by which neuroses and psychoses are resolved to the degree that the client is able to lead a normal or fulfilling existence without being overwhelmed by psychopathological phenomena. 　This process may involve psychotherapy, pharmaceutical treatment or alternative approaches such as traditional spiritual healing.　[citation needed]

Surveillance

Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. 　This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information like Internet traffic. 　It can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception. 　Surveillance is used by citizens for protecting their neighborhoods. 　And by governments for intelligence gathering - including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. 　It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers. 　Religious organisations charged with detecting heresy and heterodoxy may also carry out surveillance.Auditors carry out a form of surveillance. 　A byproduct of surveillance is that it can unjustifiably violate people's privacy and is often criticized by civil liberties activists. 　Liberal democracies may have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereas authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions. 　Espionage is by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legitimate. 　International espionage seems to be common among all types of countries.

Integer

An integer is the number zero (0), a positive natural number (1, 2, 3, etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). 　The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. 　In the language of mathematics, the set of integers is often denoted by the boldface Z or blackboard bold Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } . 　The set of natural numbers N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } is a subset of Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } , which in turn is a subset of the set of all rational numbers Q {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } , itself a subset of the real numbers R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } . 　Like the natural numbers, Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } is countably infinite. 　An integer may be regarded as a real number that can be written without a fractional component. 　For example, 21, 4, 0, and −2048 are integers, while 9.75, 5+1/2, and √2 are not. 　The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers. 　In algebraic number theory, the integers are sometimes qualified as rational integers to distinguish them from the more general algebraic integers. 　In fact, (rational) integers are algebraic integers that are also rational numbers.

Scandal

A scandal can be broadly defined as the strong social reactions of outrage, anger, or surprise, when accusations or rumours circulate or appear for some reason, regarding a person or persons who are perceived to have transgressed in some way. 　These reactions are usually noisy and may be conflicting, and they often have negative effects on the status and credibility of the person(s) or organisation involved. 　Society is scandalised when it becomes aware of breaches of moral norms or legal requirements, often when these have remained undiscovered or been concealed for some time. 　Such breaches have typically erupted from greed, lust or the abuse of power. 　Scandals may be regarded as political, sexual, moral, literary or artistic but often spread from one realm into another. 　The basis of a scandal may be factual or false, or a combination of both. 　In contemporary times, exposure of a scandalous situation is often made by mass media. 　Contemporary media has the capacity to spread knowledge of a scandal further than in previous centuries and public interest has encouraged many cases of confected scandals relating to well-known people as well as genuine scandals relating to politics and business. 　Some scandals are revealed by whistleblowers who discover wrongdoing within organizations or groups, such as Deep Throat (William Mark Felt) during the Watergate scandal in the 1970s in the United States. 　Whistleblowers may be protected by laws which are used to obtain information of misdeeds and acts detrimental to their establishments. 　However, the possibility of scandal has always created a tension between society's efforts to reveal wrongdoing and its desire to cover them up ... and the act of covering up (or indeed of revealing) a contentious situation may become a scandal.

Dealt

Dealt is a 2017 American documentary film directed by Luke Korem. 　The film is about the life and career of Richard Turner - who is renowned as one of the world's greatest card magicians, yet he is completely blind. 　In the documentary, Richard traces his journey from his troubled childhood, when he began losing his vision, to present day as he relentlessly pursues perfection while struggling with the reality that his biggest weakness might also be his greatest strength. 　The film features extensive vérité footage of both Richard and his family as well as archive footage of Turner's many television appearances. 　The film features interviews with notable magicians including Turner, Johnny Thompson, Max Maven, Armando Lucero, and Jason England. 　Dealt debuted at the 2017 South By Southwest Film Festival in competition where it won the Audience Award for Best Documentary Feature. 　Dealt went on to win four more audience awards and screened at festivals around the world including China and New Zealand. 　The film is distributed by IFC Films through Sundance Selects. 　In the US, the film can be viewed on Hulu, Amazon and iTunes. 　Internationally, it is available on Netflix.

Woke

Woke (/ˈwoʊk/ WOHK) is an adjective derived from African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) meaning "alert to racial prejudice and discrimination". 　Beginning in the 2010s, it came to encompass a broader awareness of social inequalities such as sexism, and has also been used as shorthand for American Left ideas involving identity politics and social justice, such as the notion of white privilege and slavery reparations for African Americans. 　The phrase stay woke had emerged in AAVE by the 1930s, in some contexts referring to an awareness of the social and political issues affecting African Americans. 　The phrase was uttered in a recording by Lead Belly and later by Erykah Badu. 　Following the shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri in 2014, the phrase was popularised by Black Lives Matter (BLM) activists seeking to raise awareness about police shootings of African Americans. 　After seeing use on Black Twitter, the term woke became an Internet meme and was increasingly used by white people, often to signal their support for BLM, which some commentators have criticised as cultural appropriation. 　Mainly associated with the millennial generation, the term spread internationally and was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2017. 　The terms woke-washing and woke capitalism were coined to describe companies who signal support for progressive causes as a substitute for genuine change. 　By 2020, members of the political center and right wing in several Western countries were using the term woke, often in an ironic way, as an insult for various progressive or leftist movements and ideologies perceived as overzealous, performative, or insincere. 　In turn, some commentators came to consider it an offensive term with negative associations to those who promote political ideas involving identity and race.

Lawsuit

A lawsuit is a proceeding by one or more parties (the plaintiff or claimant) against one or more parties (the defendant) in a civil court of law. 　The archaic term "suit in law" is found in only a small number of laws still in effect today. 　The term "lawsuit" is used with respect to a civil action brought by a plaintiff (a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions) who requests a legal remedy or equitable remedy from a court. 　The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint or else risk default judgment. 　If the plaintiff is successful, judgment is entered in favor of the defendant. 　A variety of court orders may be issued in connection with or as part of the judgment to enforce a right, award damages or restitution, or impose a temporary or permanent injunction to prevent an act or compel an act. 　A declaratory judgment may be issued to prevent future legal disputes. 　A lawsuit may involve resolution of disputes involving issues of private law between individuals, business entities or non-profit organizations. 　A lawsuit may also involve issues of public law in the sense that the state is treated as if it were a private party in a civil case, either as a plaintiff with a civil cause of action to enforce certain laws, or as a defendant in actions contesting the legality of the state's laws or seeking monetary damages for injuries caused by agents of the state. 　Conducting a civil action is called litigation. 　The plaintiffs and defendants are called litigants and the attorneys representing them are called litigators. 　The term litigation may also refer to the conducting of criminal actions (see criminal procedure).

Extract

An extract is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. 　Extracts may be sold as tinctures, absolutes or in powder form. 　The aromatic principles of many spices, nuts, herbs, fruits, etc., and some flowers, are marketed as extracts, among the best known of true extracts being almond, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, lemon, nutmeg, orange, peppermint, pistachio, rose, spearmint, vanilla, violet, rum, and wintergreen.

Guarantee

Guarantee is a legal term more comprehensive and of higher import than either warranty or "security". 　It most commonly designates a private transaction by means of which one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for another, engages to be answerable for them. 　It may also designate a treaty through which claims, rights or possessions are secured. 　It is to be differentiated from the colloquial "personal guarantee" in that a guarantee is a legal concept which produces an economic effect. 　A personal guarantee by contrast is often used to refer to a promise made by an individual which is supported by, or assured through, the word of (speak enough) the individual. 　In the same way, a guarantee produces a legal effect wherein one party affirms the promise of another (usually to pay) by promising to themselves pay if default occurs. 　At law, the giver of a guarantee is called the surety or the "guarantor". 　The person to whom the guarantee is given is the creditor or the "obligee"; while the person whose payment or performance is secured thereby is termed "the obligor", "the principal debtor", or simply "the principal". 　Suretys have been classified as follows: Those in which there is an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose, the relation of principal and surety, to which agreement the secured creditor is a party; those in which there is a similar agreement between the principal and surety only, to which the creditor is a stranger; those in which, without any such contract of suretyship, there is a primary and a secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt, the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if they should be compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from the person by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been paid.

Perception

Perception (from Latin perceptio 'gathering, receiving') is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. 　All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system. 　Vision involves light striking the retina of the eye; smell is mediated by odor molecules; and hearing involves pressure waves. 　Perception is not only the passive receipt of these signals, but it is also shaped by the recipient's learning, memory, expectation, and attention. 　Sensory input is a process that transforms this low-level information to higher-level information (e.g., extracts shapes for object recognition). 　The process that follows connects a person's concepts and expectations (or knowledge), restorative and selective mechanisms (such as attention) that influence perception. 　Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. 　Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. 　Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception. 　Sensory neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. 　Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. 　Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. 　Although people traditionally viewed the senses as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. 　There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary. 　The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. 　Human and other animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. 　Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. 　These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. 　For instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell.

Yugoslavia

Coordinates: 44°49′N 20°27′E / 44.817°N 20.450°E / 44.817; 20.450 Yugoslavia (/ˌjuːɡoʊˈslɑːviə/; Serbo-Croatian: Jugoslavija / Југославија [juɡǒslaːʋija]; Slovene: Jugoslavija [juɡɔˈslàːʋija]; Macedonian: Југославија [juɡɔˈsɫavija]; lit. 'Land of the South Slavs') was a country in Southeast Europe and Central Europe for most of the 20th century. 　It came into existence after World War I in 1918 under the name of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (which was formed from territories of the former Austria-Hungary) with the Kingdom of Serbia, and constituted the first union of the South Slavic people as a sovereign state, following centuries in which the region had been part of the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. 　Peter I of Serbia was its first sovereign. 　The kingdom gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. 　The official name of the state was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929. 　The Kingdom was invaded by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941. 　In 1943, a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the Partisan resistance. 　In 1944, King Peter II, then living in exile, recognised it as the legitimate government. 　The monarchy was subsequently abolished in November 1945. 　Yugoslavia was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1945, when a communist government was established. 　It acquired the territories of Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar from Italy. 　Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito ruled the country as president until his death in 1980. 　In 1963, the country was renamed again, as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). 　The six constituent republics that made up the SFRY were the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia, and SR Slovenia. 　SR Serbia contained two Socialist Autonomous Provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo, which after 1974 were largely equal to the other members of the federation. 　After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, Yugoslavia broke up along its republics' borders, at first into five countries, leading to the Yugoslav Wars. 　From 1993 to 2017, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia tried political and military leaders from the former Yugoslavia for war crimes, genocide, and other crimes committed during those wars. 　After the breakup, the republics of Montenegro and Serbia formed a reduced federative state, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), known from 2003 to 2006 as Serbia and Montenegro. 　This state aspired to the status of sole legal successor to the SFRY, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. 　Eventually, it accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession and in 2003 its official name was changed to Serbia and Montenegro. 　This state dissolved when Montenegro and Serbia each became independent states in 2006, with Kosovo having an ongoing dispute over its declaration of independence in 2008.

Iraqi

Look up Iraqi in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Iraqi or Iraqis (in plural) means from Iraq, a country in the Middle East, and may refer to: Iraqi people or Iraqis, people from Iraq or of Iraqi descent A citizen of Iraq, see demographics of Iraq Iraqi or Araghi (Persian: عراقی), someone or something of, from, or related to Persian Iraq, an old name for a region in Central Iran Iraqi Arabic, the colloquial form of Arabic spoken in Iraq Iraqi cuisine Iraqi culture The Iraqis (party), a political party in Iraq Iraqi List, a political party in Iraq Fakhr-al-Din Iraqi, 13th-century Persian poet and Sufi.