Commentary (philology)

In philology, a commentary is a line-by-line or even word-by-word explication usually attached to an edition of a text in the same or an accompanying volume. 　It may draw on methodologies of close reading and literary criticism, but its primary purpose is to elucidate the language of the text and the specific culture that produced it, both of which may be foreign to the reader. 　Such a commentary usually takes the form of footnotes, endnotes, or separate text cross-referenced by line, paragraph or page. 　Means of providing commentary on the language of the text include notes on textual criticism, syntax and semantics, and the analysis of rhetoric, literary tropes, and style. 　The aim is to remove, lessen or point out linguistic obstacles to reading and understanding the text. 　If a text is historical, or is produced within a culture assumed to be of limited familiarity to a reader, a broader range of issues may require elucidation. 　These include, but are by no means limited to, biographical data pertaining to the author, historical events, customs and laws, technical terminology and facts of daily life, religious beliefs and philosophical perspectives, literary allusions, geographical settings, and cross-references to related passages in the same work, other works by the author, or sources used by the author. 　Some commentaries from Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages (more strictly referred to as scholia) are a valuable source of information otherwise unknown, including references to works that are now lost. 　Jerome provides a list of several commentaries that were in use during his days as a student in the 350s A.D. One of the most used of the ancient scholia today is that of Servius on Vergil’s Aeneid, written in the 4th century. 　The production of commentaries began to flourish in the 16th century as part of the humanist project to recover the texts of antiquity, with its related boom in publishing. 　In the modern era, a commentary differs from an annotated edition aimed at students or the casual reader in that it attempts to address an exhaustive range of scholarly questions, many of which may be of concern or interest primarily to specialists. 　The commentator may take a position on variant readings of the text or on a point of scholarly dispute, but arguments are usually succinct, a paragraph or less than a page in length.

Qualification

Look up qualification in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Qualification is either the process of qualifying for an achievement, or a credential attesting to that achievement, and may refer to: Professional qualification, attributes developed by obtaining academic degrees or through professional experience Qualification badge, a decoration of People's Liberation Army Type 07 indicating military rank or length of service Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS), a competitive contract procurement process established by the United States Congress Qualifications for professional social work, professional degrees in social work in various nations Qualification problem, the impossibility of listing all the preconditions required for an action to have its intended effect Qualification principle, in programming language theory, the statement that syntactic classes may admit local definitions Qualification types in the United Kingdom, different levels of academic, vocational or skills-related education achievements International Qualification Examination, taken by foreign accountants to become a Certified Public Accountant in the United States Pre-qualification (lending), a process by which a lending institution estimates how much it is willing to lend to a borrower School leaving qualification, academic qualification awarded for the completion of high school in various times and countries Scottish Vocational Qualification, certificate of vocational education in Scotland Category:Qualification for sports events World Cup qualification (disambiguation)

Abundance (ecology)

In ecology, local abundance is the relative representation of a species in a particular ecosystem. 　It is usually measured as the number of individuals found per sample. 　The ratio of abundance of one species to one or multiple other species living in an ecosystem is referred to as relative species abundances. 　Both indicators are relevant for computing biodiversity. 　A variety of sampling methods are used to measure abundance. 　For larger animals, these may include spotlight counts, track counts and roadkill counts, as well as presence at monitoring stations. 　In many plant communities the abundances of plant species are measured by plant cover, i.e. the relative area covered by different plant species in a small plot. 　Abundance is in simplest terms usually measured by identifying and counting every individual of every species in a given sector. 　It is common for the distribution of species to be skewed so that a few species take up the bulk of individuals collected. 　Relative species abundance is calculated by dividing the number of species from one group by the total number of species from all groups.

Auckland

Auckland (pronounced /ˈɔːk.lənd/) (Māori: Tāmaki Makaurau) is a large metropolitan city in the North Island of New Zealand. 　The most populous urban area in the country and the fifth largest city in Oceania, Auckland has an urban population of about 1,440,300 (June 2022). 　It is located in the greater Auckland Region—the area governed by Auckland Council—which includes outlying rural areas and the islands of the Hauraki Gulf, and which has a total population of 1,695,200. 　While Europeans continue to make up the plurality of Auckland's population, the city became multicultural and cosmopolitan in the late-20th century, with Asians accounting for 31% of the city's population in 2018. 　Auckland has the eighth largest proportion of foreign born residents in the world, with 41% of its residents born overseas. 　With its large population of Pasifika New Zealanders, the city is also home to the biggest ethnic Polynesian population in the world. 　The Māori-language name for Auckland is Tāmaki Makaurau, meaning "Tāmaki desired by many", in reference to the desirability of its natural resources and geography. 　Auckland lies between the Hauraki Gulf to the east, the Hunua Ranges to the south-east, the Manukau Harbour to the south-west, and the Waitākere Ranges and smaller ranges to the west and north-west. 　The surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with 53 volcanic centres that make up the Auckland Volcanic Field. 　The central part of the urban area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitematā Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. 　Auckland is one of the few cities in the world to have a harbour on each of two separate major bodies of water. 　The Auckland isthmus was first settled c. 　1350 and was valued for its rich and fertile land. 　The Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. 　After a British colony was established in New Zealand in 1840, William Hobson, then Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, chose Auckland as its new capital. 　He named the area after George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. 　Māori–European conflict over land in the region led to war in the mid-19th century. 　In 1865, Auckland was replaced by Wellington as the capital, but continued to grow, initially because of its port and the logging and gold-mining activities in its hinterland, and later because of pastoral farming (especially dairy farming) in the surrounding area, and manufacturing in the city itself. 　It has been the nation's largest city throughout most of its history. 　Today, Auckland's central business district is New Zealand's leading economic hub. 　It also has a thriving culture that has influenced others across the world, built on its dynamic arts scene and a richly multicultural history. 　The University of Auckland, founded in 1883, is the largest university in New Zealand. 　The city's significant tourist attractions include national historic sites, festivals, performing arts, sports activities, and a variety of cultural institutions, such as the Auckland War Memorial Museum, the Museum of Transport and Technology, and the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki. 　Its architectural landmarks include the Harbour Bridge, the Town Hall, the Ferry Building and the Sky Tower, which is the second tallest building in the Southern Hemisphere after Thamrin Nine. 　The city is served by Auckland Airport, which handles around 2 million international passengers a month. 　Despite being one of the most expensive cities in the world, Auckland is recognised as one of the world's most liveable cities, ranking third in the 2019 Mercer Quality of Living Survey and at first place in a 2021 ranking of the Global Liveability Ranking by The Economist.

Workshop

Beginning with the Industrial Revolution era, a workshop may be a room, rooms or building which provides both the area and tools (or machinery) that may be required for the manufacture or repair of manufactured goods. 　Workshops were the only places of production until the advent of industrialization and the development of larger factories. 　In the 20th and 21st century, many Western homes contained a workshop in either the garage, basement, or an external shed. 　Home workshops typically contain a workbench, hand tools, power tools, and other hardware. 　Along with the practical application of repairing goods, workshops are often used to tinker and make prototypes. 　Some workshops focus exclusively on automotive repair or restoration although there are a variety of workshops in existence today. 　Woodworking, metalworking, electronics, and other types of electronic prototyping workshops are among the most common.

Redshift

In physics, a redshift is an increase in the wavelength, and corresponding decrease in the frequency and photon energy, of electromagnetic radiation (such as light). 　The opposite change, a decrease in wavelength and simultaneous increase in frequency and energy, is known as a negative redshift, or blueshift. 　The terms derive from the colours red and blue which form the extremes of the visible light spectrum. 　In astronomy and cosmology, the three main causes of electromagnetic redshift are The radiation travels between objects which are moving apart ("relativistic" redshift, an example of the relativistic Doppler effect) The radiation travels towards an object in a weaker gravitational potential, i.e. towards an object in less strongly curved (flatter) spacetime (gravitational redshift) The radiation travels through expanding space (cosmological redshift). 　The observation that all sufficiently distant light sources show redshift corresponding to their distance from Earth is known as Hubble's law. 　Relativistic, gravitational, and cosmological redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of frame transformation laws. 　Gravitational waves, which also travel at the speed of light, are subject to the same redshift phenomena. 　Examples of strong redshifting are a gamma ray perceived as an X-ray, or initially visible light perceived as radio waves. 　Subtler redshifts are seen in the spectroscopic observations of astronomical objects, and are used in terrestrial technologies such as Doppler radar and radar guns. 　Other physical processes exist that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation, including scattering and optical effects; however, the resulting changes are distinguishable from (astronomical) redshift and are not generally referred to as such (see section on physical optics and radiative transfer). 　The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter z, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength (positive for redshifts, negative for blueshifts), and by the wavelength ratio 1 + z (which is >1 for redshifts, <1 for blueshifts).

Suspect

In law enforcement jargon, a suspect is a known person accused or suspected of committing a crime. 　Police and reporters in the United States often use the word suspect as a jargon when referring to the perpetrator of the offense (perp in dated U.S. slang). 　However, in official definition, the perpetrator is the robber, assailant, counterfeiter, etc.　—the person who committed the crime. 　The distinction between suspect and perpetrator recognizes that the suspect is not known to have committed the offense, while the perpetrator—who may not yet have been suspected of the crime, and is thus not necessarily a suspect—is the one who did. 　The suspect may be a different person from the perpetrator, or there may have been no actual crime, which would mean there is no perpetrator. 　A common error in police reports is a witness description of the suspect (as a witness generally describes a perpetrator, while a mug shot is of a suspect). 　Frequently it is stated that police are looking for the suspect, when there is no suspect; the police could be looking for a suspect, but they are surely looking for the perpetrator, and very often it is impossible to tell from such a police report whether there is a suspect or not. 　Possibly because of the misuse of "suspect" to mean "perpetrator", police in the late 20th and early 21st century began to use person of interest, possible suspect, and even possible person of interest, to mean suspect.　[citation needed] Under the judicial systems of the U.S., once a decision is approved to arrest a suspect, or bind him over for trial, either by a prosecutor issuing an information, a grand jury issuing a true bill or indictment, or a judge issuing an arrest warrant, the suspect can then be properly called a defendant, or the accused. 　Only after being convicted is the suspect properly called the perpetrator.

Realm (virology)

In virology, realm is the highest taxonomic rank established for viruses by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), which oversees virus taxonomy. 　Six virus realms are recognized and united by specific highly conserved traits: Adnaviria, which contains archaeal filamentous viruses with A-form double-stranded (ds) DNA genomes encoding a unique alpha-helical major capsid protein; Duplodnaviria, which contains all dsDNA viruses that encode the HK97-fold major capsid protein; Monodnaviria, which contains all single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses that encode a HUH superfamily endonuclease and their descendants; Riboviria, which contains all RNA viruses that encode RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and all viruses that encode reverse transcriptase; Ribozyviria, which contains hepatitis delta-like viruses with circular, negative-sense ssRNA genomes; and Varidnaviria, which contains all dsDNA viruses that encode a vertical jelly roll major capsid protein. 　The rank of realm corresponds to the rank of domain used for cellular life, but differs in that viruses in a realm do not necessarily share a common ancestor based on common descent nor do the realms share a common ancestor. 　Instead, realms group viruses together based on specific traits that are highly conserved over time, which may have been obtained on a single occasion or multiple occasions. 　As such, each realm represents at least one instance of viruses coming into existence. 　While historically it was difficult to determine deep evolutionary relations between viruses, in the 21st century methods such as metagenomics and cryogenic electron microscopy have enabled such research to occur, which led to the establishment of Riboviria in 2018, three realms in 2019, and two in 2020.

Screaming

A scream is a loud/hard vocalization in which air is passed through the vocal cords with greater force than is used in regular or close-distance vocalisation. 　This can be performed by any creature possessing lungs, including humans. 　A scream is often an instinctive or reflex action, with a strong emotional aspect, like fear, pain, annoyance, surprise, joy, excitement, anger, etc.

Divorce

Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. 　Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. 　Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries, divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. 　In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person. 　Divorce is different from annulment, which declares the marriage null and void, with legal separation or de jure separation (a legal process by which a married couple may formalize a de facto separation while remaining legally married) or with de facto separation (a process where the spouses informally stop cohabiting). 　Reasons for divorce vary, from sexual incompatibility or lack of independence for one or both spouses to a personality clash or infidelity. 　The only countries that do not allow divorce are the Philippines and the Vatican City. 　In the Philippines, divorce for non-Muslim Filipinos is not legal unless the husband or wife is an undocumented immigrant and satisfies certain conditions. 　The Vatican City is a state ruled by the head of the Catholic Church, a religion that does not allow for divorce. 　Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy (1970), Portugal (1975, although from 1910 to 1940 it was possible both for the civil and religious marriage), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Paraguay (1991), Colombia (1991; from 1976 was allowed only for non-Catholics), Andorra (1995), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011).

Beetle

Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (/koʊliːˈɒptərə/), in the superorder Endopterygota. 　Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. 　The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal life-forms; new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. 　Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. 　Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae (ladybirds or ladybugs) eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. 　Beetles typically have a particularly hard exoskeleton including the elytra, though some such as the rove beetles have very short elytra while blister beetles have softer elytra. 　The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects, although there are several examples of novelty, such as adaptations in water beetles which trap air bubbles under the elytra for use while diving. 　Beetles are endopterygotes, which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis, with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobile pupal stage. 　Some, such as stag beetles, have a marked sexual dimorphism, the males possessing enormously enlarged mandibles which they use to fight other males. 　Many beetles are aposematic, with bright colors and patterns warning of their toxicity, while others are harmless Batesian mimics of such insects. 　Many beetles, including those that live in sandy places, have effective camouflage. 　Beetles are prominent in human culture, from the sacred scarabs of ancient Egypt to beetlewing art and use as pets or fighting insects for entertainment and gambling. 　Many beetle groups are brightly and attractively colored making them objects of collection and decorative displays. 　Over 300 species are used as food, mostly as larvae; species widely consumed include mealworms and rhinoceros beetle larvae. 　However, the major impact of beetles on human life is as agricultural, forestry, and horticultural pests. 　Serious pests include the boll weevil of cotton, the Colorado potato beetle, the coconut hispine beetle, and the mountain pine beetle. 　Most beetles, however, do not cause economic damage and many, such as the lady beetles and dung beetles are beneficial by helping to control insect pests.

Mouse

A mouse (PL: mice) is a small rodent. 　Characteristically, mice are known to have a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail, and a high breeding rate. 　The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (Mus musculus). 　Mice are also popular as pets. 　In some places, certain kinds of field mice are locally common. 　They are known to invade homes for food and shelter. 　Mice are typically distinguished from rats by their size. 　Generally, when a muroid rodent is discovered, its common name includes the term mouse if it is smaller, or rat if it is larger. 　The common terms rat and mouse are not taxonomically specific. 　Typical mice are classified in the genus Mus, but the term mouse is not confined to members of Mus and can also apply to species from other genera such as the deer mouse, Peromyscus. 　Domestic mice sold as pets often differ substantially in size from the common house mouse. 　This is attributable to breeding and different conditions in the wild. 　The best-known strain of mouse is the white lab mouse. 　It has more uniform traits that are appropriate to its use in research. 　Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes and even certain kinds of arthropods have been known to prey heavily upon mice. 　Despite this, mice populations remain plentiful. 　Due to its remarkable adaptability to almost any environment, the mouse is one of the most successful mammalian genera living on Earth today. 　In certain contexts, mice can be considered vermin. 　Vermin are a major source of crop damage, as they are known to cause structural damage and spread disease. 　Mice spread disease through their feces and are often carriers of parasites. 　In North America, breathing dust that has come in contact with mouse excrement has been linked to hantavirus, which may lead to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). 　Primarily nocturnal animals, mice compensate for their poor eyesight with a keen sense of hearing. 　They depend on their sense of smell to locate food and avoid predators. 　In the wild, mice are known to build intricate burrows. 　These burrows have long entrances and are equipped with escape tunnels. 　In at least one species, the architectural design of a burrow is a genetic trait.

Footage

In filmmaking and video production, footage is raw, unedited material as originally filmed by a movie camera or recorded by a (often special) video camera, which typically must be edited to create a motion picture, video clip, television show or similar completed work. 　Footage may also refer to sequences used in film and video editing, such as special effects and archive material (for special cases of this, see stock footage and B roll). 　Since the term originates in film, footage is only used for recorded images, such as film stock, videotapes or digitized clips – on live television, the signals from video cameras are instead called sources.

Prototype

A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process. 　It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and software programming. 　A prototype is generally used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users. 　Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one. 　In some design workflow models, creating a prototype (a process sometimes called materialization) is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. 　A prototype can also mean a typical example of something such as in the use of the derivation 'prototypical'. 　This is a useful term in identifying objects, behaviours and concepts which are considered the accepted norm and is analogous with terms such as stereotypes and archetypes. 　The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, "primitive form", neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, "original, primitive", from πρῶτος protos, "first" and τύπος typos, "impression" (originally in the sense of a mark left by a blow, then by a stamp struck by a die (note "typewriter"); by implication a scar or mark; by analogy a shape i.e. a statue, (figuratively) style, or resemblance; a model for imitation or illustrative example—note "typical").

Cincinnati

Cincinnati (/ˌsɪnsɪˈnæti/ SIN-si-NAT-ee) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Hamilton County. 　Settled in 1788, the city is located at the northern side of the confluence of the Licking and Ohio rivers, the latter of which marks the state line with Kentucky. 　The city is the economic and cultural hub of the Cincinnati metropolitan area. 　With an estimated population of 2,256,884, it is Ohio's largest metropolitan area and the nation's 30th-largest, and with a city population of 309,317, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and 64th in the United States. 　Throughout much of the 19th century, it was among the top 10 U.S. cities by population, surpassed only by New Orleans and the older, established settlements of the United States eastern seaboard, as well as being the sixth-most populous city from 1840 until 1860. 　As a rivertown crossroads at the junction of the North, South, East, and West, Cincinnati developed with fewer immigrants and less influence from Europe than East Coast cities in the same period. 　However, it received a significant number of German-speaking immigrants, who founded many of the city's cultural institutions. 　By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnati's growth slowed considerably. 　The city was surpassed in population by other inland cities, particularly Chicago, which developed based on strong commodity exploitation, economics, and the railroads, and St. Louis, which for decades after the Civil War served as the gateway to westward migration. 　Cincinnati is home to three major sports teams: the Cincinnati Reds of Major League Baseball; the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League; and FC Cincinnati of Major League Soccer; it is also home to the Cincinnati Cyclones, a minor league ice hockey team. 　The city's largest institution of higher education, the University of Cincinnati, was founded in 1819 as a municipal college and is now ranked as one of the 50 largest in the United States. 　Cincinnati is home to historic architecture with many structures in the urban core having remained intact for 200 years. 　In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as the "Paris of America", due mainly to such ambitious architectural projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel, and Shillito Department Store. 　Cincinnati is the birthplace of William Howard Taft, the 27th President and former Chief Justice of the United States.

Subset

In mathematics, set A is a subset of a set B if all elements of A are also elements of B; B is then a superset of A. It is possible for A and B to be equal; if they are unequal, then A is a proper subset of B. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called inclusion (or sometimes containment). 　A is a subset of B may also be expressed as B includes (or contains) A or A is included (or contained) in B. A k-subset is a subset with k elements. 　The subset relation defines a partial order on sets. 　In fact, the subsets of a given set form a Boolean algebra under the subset relation, in which the join and meet are given by intersection and union, and the subset relation itself is the Boolean inclusion relation.

Nursing

Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. 　Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, and scope of practice. 　Nurses practice in many specialties with differing levels of prescription authority. 　Nurses comprise the largest component of most healthcare environments; but there is evidence of international shortages of qualified nurses. 　Nurses collaborate with other healthcare providers such as physicians, nurse practitioners, physical therapists, and psychologists. 　Unlike nurse practitioners, nurses typically can not prescribe medications in the US. 　Nurse practitioners are nurses with a graduate degree in advanced practice nursing. 　They practice independently in a variety of settings in more than half of the United States. 　Since the postwar period, nurse education has undergone a process of diversification towards advanced and specialized credentials, and many of the traditional regulations and provider roles are changing. 　Nurses develop a plan of care, working collaboratively with physicians, therapists, the patient, the patient's family, and other team members that focuses on treating illness to improve quality of life. 　In the United Kingdom and the United States, clinical nurse specialists and nurse practitioners, diagnose health problems and prescribe the correct medications and other therapies, depending on particular state regulations. 　Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of a multidisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners, and dietitians. 　Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals. 　In addition to providing care and support, nurses educate the public, and promote health and wellness.

Jacques

Ancient and noble French family names, Jacques, Jacq, or James are believed to originate from the Middle Ages in the historic northwest Brittany region in France, and have since spread around the world over the centuries. 　To date, there are over one hundred identified noble families related to the surname by the Nobility & Gentry of Great Britain & Ireland.

Discipline

Discipline refers to rule following behavior, to regulation, order, control and authority. 　It may also refer to punishment. 　Discipline is used to create habits, routines, and automatic mechanisms such as blind obedience. 　It may be inflicted on others or on oneself. 　Self discipline refers to the practice of self restraint, controlling one's emotions, and ignoring impulses.

Crashed

"Crashed" is the third U.S. rock single, (the fifth overall), from the band Daughtry's debut album. 　It was released only to U.S. rock stations on September 5, 2007. 　Upon its release the song got adds at those stations, along with some Alternative and Top 40 stations. 　The song's release is like the release of "What I Want" in that while "Over You" was the mainstream third single, "Crashed" was the third single on U.S. rock stations.

Bullet

A bullet is a kinetic projectile, a component of firearm ammunition that is shot from a gun barrel. 　They are made of a variety of materials, such as copper, lead, steel, polymer, rubber and even wax; and are made in various shapes and constructions (depending on the intended applications), including specialized functions such as hunting, target shooting, training and combat. 　Bullets are often tapered, making them more aerodynamic. 　Bullet size is expressed by weight and diameter (referred to as "caliber") in both imperial and metric measurement systems. 　Bullets do not normally contain explosives but strike or damage the intended target by transferring kinetic energy upon impact and penetration.

Denver

Denver (/ˈdɛnvər/) is a consolidated city and county, the capital, and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. 　Its population was 715,522 at the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010. 　It is the 19th-most populous city in the United States and the fifth most populous state capital. 　It is the principal city of the Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and the first city of the Front Range Urban Corridor. 　Denver is located in the Southwestern United States, in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. 　Its downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River, approximately 12 miles (19 kilometres) east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. 　It is named after James W. Denver, a governor of the Kansas Territory. 　It is nicknamed the Mile High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile (5280 feet or 1609.344 meters) above sea level. 　The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone, passes directly through Denver Union Station. 　Denver is ranked as a Beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. 　The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 2,963,821 at the 2020 United States census, making it the 19th most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area. 　The 12-county Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a population of 3,623,560 at the 2020 United States census, making it the 17th most populous U.S. primary statistical area. 　Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, an oblong urban region stretching across two states with a population of 5,055,344 at the 2020 United States Census. 　Its metropolitan area is the most populous metropolitan area within a 560-mile (900 km) radius and the second most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. 　In 2016, it was named the best place to live in the United States by U.S. News & World Report.

Kenya

Coordinates: 1°N 38°E / 1°N 38°E / 1; 38 Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya (Swahili: Jamhuri ya Kenya), is a country in East Africa. 　At 580,367 square kilometres (224,081 sq mi), Kenya is the world's 48th largest country by area. 　With a population of more than 47.6 million in the 2019 census, Kenya is the 27th most populous country in the world. 　Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi, while its oldest, currently second largest city, and first capital is the coastal city of Mombasa. 　Kisumu City is the third-largest city and also an inland port on Lake Victoria. 　Other important urban centres include Nakuru and Eldoret. 　As of 2020, Kenya is the third-largest economy in sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria and South Africa. 　Kenya is bordered by South Sudan to the northwest, Ethiopia to the north, Somalia to the east, Uganda to the west, Tanzania to the south, and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. 　Its geography, climate and population vary widely, ranging from cold snow-capped mountaintops (Batian, Nelion and Point Lenana on Mount Kenya) with vast surrounding forests, wildlife and fertile agricultural regions to temperate climates in western and rift valley counties and dry less fertile arid and semi-arid areas and absolute deserts (Chalbi Desert and Nyiri Desert). 　Kenya's earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, like the present-day Hadza people. 　According to archaeological dating of associated artifacts and skeletal material, Cushitic speakers first settled in Kenya's lowlands between 3,200 and 1,300 BC, a phase known as the Lowland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic. 　Nilotic-speaking pastoralists (ancestral to Kenya's Nilotic speakers) began migrating from present-day South Sudan into Kenya around 500 BC. 　Bantu people settled at the coast and the interior between 250 BC and 500 AD. 　European contact began in 1500 AD with the Portuguese Empire, and effective colonisation of Kenya began in the 19th century during the European exploration of the interior. 　Modern-day Kenya emerged from a protectorate established by the British Empire in 1895 and the subsequent Kenya Colony, which began in 1920. 　Numerous disputes between the UK and the colony led to the Mau Mau revolution, which began in 1952, and the declaration of independence in 1963. 　After independence, Kenya remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. 　The current constitution was adopted in 2010 and replaced the 1963 independence constitution. 　Kenya is a presidential representative democratic republic, in which elected officials represent the people and the president is the head of state and government. 　Kenya is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, COMESA, International Criminal Court, as well as other international organisations. 　With a GNI of 1,840, Kenya is a lower-middle-income economy. 　Kenya's economy is the largest in eastern and central Africa, with Nairobi serving as a major regional commercial hub. 　Agriculture is the largest sector: tea and coffee are traditional cash crops, while fresh flowers are a fast-growing export. 　The service industry is also a major economic driver, particularly tourism. 　Kenya is a member of the East African Community trade bloc, though some international trade organisations categorise it as part of the Greater Horn of Africa. 　Africa is Kenya's largest export market, followed by the European Union.

Collision

In physics, a collision is any event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other in a relatively short time. 　Although the most common use of the word collision refers to incidents in which two or more objects collide with great force, the scientific use of the term implies nothing about the magnitude of the force. 　Some examples of physical interactions that scientists would consider collisions are the following: When an insect lands on a plant's leaf, its legs are said to collide with the leaf. 　When a cat strides across a lawn, each contact that its paws make with the ground is considered a collision, as well as each brush of its fur against a blade of grass. 　When a boxer throws a punch, their fist is said to collide with the opponents body. 　When an astronomical object merges with a black hole, they are considered to collide. 　Some colloquial uses of the word collision are the following: A traffic collision involves at least one automobile. 　A mid-air collision occurs between airplanes. 　A ship collision accurately involves at least two moving maritime vessels hitting each other; the related term, allision, describes when a moving ship strikes a stationary object (often, but not always, another ship). 　In physics, collisions can be classified by the change in the total kinetic energy of the system before and after the collision: If most or all of the total kinetic energy is lost (dissipated as heat, sound, etc. or absorbed by the objects themselves), the collision is said to be inelastic; such collisions involve objects coming to a full stop. 　An example of such a collision is a car crash, as cars crumple inward when crashing, rather than bouncing off of each other. 　This is by design, for the safety of the occupants and bystanders should a crash occur - the frame of the car absorbs the energy of the crash instead. 　If most of the kinetic energy is conserved (i.e. the objects continue moving afterwards), the collision is said to be elastic. 　An example of this is a baseball bat hitting a baseball - the kinetic energy of the bat is transferred to the ball, greatly increasing the ball's velocity. 　The sound of the bat hitting the ball represents the loss of energy. 　And if all of the total kinetic energy is conserved (i.e. no energy is released as sound, heat, etc.), the collision is said to be perfectly elastic. 　Such a system is an idealization and cannot occur in reality, due to the second law of thermodynamics.