Privacy

Privacy (UK: /ˈprɪvəsiː/, US: /ˈpraɪ-/) is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. 　Etymology of the word privacy: the word privacy is derived from the Latin word "privatus" which means set apart from what is public, personal and belonging to oneself, and not to the state. 　The domain of privacy partially overlaps with security, which can include the concepts of appropriate use and protection of information. 　Privacy may also take the form of bodily integrity. 　The right not to be subjected to unsanctioned invasions of privacy by the government, corporations, or individuals is part of many countries' privacy laws, and in some cases, constitutions. 　The concept of universal individual privacy is a modern concept primarily associated with Western culture, particularly British and North American, and remained virtually unknown in some cultures until recent times. 　Now, most cultures recognize the ability of individuals to withhold certain parts of personal information from wider society. 　With the rise of technology, the debate regarding privacy has shifted from a bodily sense to a digital sense. 　As the world has become digital, there have been conflicts regarding the legal right to privacy and where it is applicable. 　In most countries, the right to a reasonable expectation to digital privacy has been extended from the original right to privacy, and many countries, notably the US, under its agency, the Federal Trade Commission, and those within the European Union (EU), have passed acts that further protect digital privacy from public and private entities and grant additional rights to users of technology. 　With the rise of the Internet, there has been an increase in the prevalence of social bots, causing political polarization and harassment. 　Online harassment has also spiked, particularly with teenagers, which has consequently resulted in multiple privacy breaches. 　Selfie culture, the prominence of networks like Facebook and Instagram, location technology, and the use of advertisements and their tracking methods also pose threats to digital privacy. 　Through the rise of technology and immensity of the debate regarding privacy, there have been various conceptions of privacy, which include the right to be let alone as defined in "The Right to Privacy", the first U.S. publication discussing privacy as a legal right, to the theory of the privacy paradox, which describes the notion that users' online may say they are concerned about their privacy, but in reality, are not. 　Along with various understandings of privacy, there are actions that reduce privacy, the most recent classification includes processing of information, sharing information, and invading personal space to get private information, as defined by Daniel J. Solove. 　Conversely, in order to protect a user's privacy, multiple steps can be taken, specifically through practicing encryption, anonymity, and taking further measures to bolster the security of their data.

Muhammad

Muhammad (Arabic: مُحَمَّد; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. 　According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. 　He is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets within Islam. 　Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief. 　Muhammad was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca. 　He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. 　His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad's birth. 　His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan. 　He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib. 　In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. 　When he was 40, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave and receiving his first revelation from God. 　In 613, Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (islām) to God is the right way of life (dīn), and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam. 　Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. 　To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. 　This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. 　In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. 　In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. 　The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. 　In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. 　By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. 　The revelations (each known as Ayah — literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. 　Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law.

Declaration (anthology)

Declaration is a 1957 anthology of essays by British writers. 　It was edited by Tom Maschler and published by MacGibbon & Kee. 　It features short essays by Doris Lessing, Colin Wilson, John Osborne, John Wain, Kenneth Tynan, Bill Hopkins, Lindsay Anderson and Stuart Holroyd. 　The book is closely associated with the angry young men movement, and the essays are presented as "credos" or manifesto of the writers.

Elevation

The elevation of a geographic location is its height above or below a fixed reference point, most commonly a reference geoid, a mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface (see Geodetic datum § Vertical datum). 　The term elevation is mainly used when referring to points on the Earth's surface, while altitude or geopotential height is used for points above the surface, such as an aircraft in flight or a spacecraft in orbit, and depth is used for points below the surface. 　Elevation is not to be confused with the distance from the center of the Earth. 　Due to the equatorial bulge, the summits of Mount Everest and Chimborazo have, respectively, the largest elevation and the largest geocentric distance.

Narrative

A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether nonfictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller, novel, etc.). 　Narratives can be presented through a sequence of written or spoken words, through still or moving images, or through any combination of these. 　The word derives from the Latin verb narrare (to tell), which is derived from the adjective gnarus (knowing or skilled). 　Narration (i.e., the process of presenting a narrative) is a rhetorical mode of discourse, broadly defined (and paralleling argumentation, description, and exposition), is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. 　More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode[dubious – discuss] in which a narrator communicates directly to an audience. 　The school of literary criticism known as Russian formalism has applied methods that are more often used to analyse narrative fiction, to non-fictional texts such as political speeches. 　Oral storytelling is the earliest method for sharing narratives. 　During most people's childhoods, narratives are used to guide them on proper behavior, cultural history, formation of a communal identity, and values, as especially studied in anthropology today among traditional indigenous peoples. 　Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech, literature, theatre, music and song, comics, journalism, film, television and video, video games, radio, game-play, unstructured recreation, and performance in general, as well as some painting, sculpture, drawing, photography, and other visual arts, as long as a sequence of events is presented. 　Several art movements, such as modern art, refuse the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual. 　Narrative can be organized into a number of thematic or formal categories: nonfiction (such as creative nonfiction, biography, journalism, transcript poetry, and historiography); fictionalization of historical events (such as anecdote, myth, legend, and historical fiction) and fiction proper (such as literature in the form of prose and sometimes poetry, short stories, novels, narrative poems and songs, and imaginary narratives as portrayed in other textual forms, games, or live or recorded performances). 　Narratives may also be nested within other narratives, such as narratives told by an unreliable narrator (a character) typically found in the genre of noir fiction. 　An important part of many narratives is its narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a written or spoken commentary (see also "Aesthetics approach" below).

Utah

Coordinates: 39°N 111°W / 39°N 111°W / 39; -111 (State of Utah) Utah (/ˈjuːtɑː/ YOO-tah, /ˈjuːtɔː/ (listen) YOO-taw) is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. 　It is bordered to its east by Colorado, to its northeast by Wyoming, to its north by Idaho, to its south by Arizona, and to its west by Nevada. 　Utah also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast. 　Of the fifty U.S. states, Utah is the 13th-largest by area; with a population over three million, it is the 30th-most-populous and 11th-least-densely populated. 　Urban development is mostly concentrated in two areas: the Wasatch Front in the north-central part of the state, which is home to roughly two-thirds of the population and includes the capital city, Salt Lake City; and Washington County in the southwest, with more than 180,000 residents. 　Most of the western half of Utah lies in the Great Basin. 　Utah has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups such as the ancient Puebloans, Navajo and Ute. 　The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the mid-16th century, though the region's difficult geography and harsh climate made it a peripheral part of New Spain and later Mexico. 　Even while it was Mexican territory, many of Utah's earliest settlers were American, particularly Mormons fleeing marginalization and persecution from the United States. 　Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the region was annexed by the U.S., becoming part of the Utah Territory, which included what is now Colorado and Nevada. 　Disputes between the dominant Mormon community and the federal government delayed Utah's admission as a state; only after the outlawing of polygamy was it admitted in 1896 as the 45th. 　People from Utah are known as Utahns. 　Slightly over half of all Utahns are Mormons, the vast majority of whom are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which has its world headquarters in Salt Lake City; Utah is the only state where a majority of the population belongs to a single church. 　The LDS Church greatly influences Utahn culture, politics, and daily life, though since the 1990s the state has become more religiously diverse as well as secular. 　Utah has a highly diversified economy, with major sectors including transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, and tourism. 　Utah has been one of the fastest growing states since 2000, with the 2020 U.S. census confirming the fastest population growth in the nation since 2010. 　St. George was the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. 　Utah ranks among the overall best states in metrics such as healthcare, governance, education, and infrastructure. 　It has the 14th-highest median average income and the least income inequality of any U.S. state. 　Over time and influenced by climate change, droughts in Utah have been increasing in frequency and severity, putting a further strain on Utah's water security and impacting the state’s economy.

Intellectual

An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for the normative problems of society. 　Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend a concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by either rejecting or producing or extending an ideology, and by defending a system of values.

Distinction

Look up distinction, distinct, or distinctive in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Distinction, distinct or distinctive may refer to: Distinction (philosophy), the recognition of difference Formal distinction Distinction (law), a principle in international law governing the legal use of force in an armed conflict Distinction (sociology), a social force that places different values on different individuals Distinct (mathematics) Distinctive feature, a concept in linguistics Distinción, in Spanish, separating consonantal sounds, see Phonological history of Spanish coronal fricatives The Hua–Yi distinction, the difference between China (Hua) and barbarian outsiders (Yi), applied culturally and ethnically Distinction (book), a book by Pierre Bourdieu Distinction (horse), Irish gelding, third in the 2005 Melbourne Cup Distinction (song), song and album by The Suffrajets

Distinction (sociology)

In sociology, distinction is a social force whereby people use various strategies—consciously or not—to differentiate and distance themselves from others in society, and to assign themselves greater value in the process. 　In Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (La Distinction, 1979), Pierre Bourdieu described how those in power define aesthetic concepts like "good taste", with the consequence that the social class of a person tends to predict and in fact determine his or her cultural interests, likes, and dislikes. 　Political and socio-economic, racial and gender distinctions, based upon social class, are reinforced in daily life within society. 　In The Rebel Sell: Why the Culture Can't be Jammed (2004), Joseph Heath and Andrew Potter describe "distinction" as a social competition in which the styles of social fashion are in continual development, and that the men and women who do not follow the development of social trends soon become stale, and irrelevant to their social-class stratum.

Polynomial

In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression consisting of indeterminates (also called variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and positive-integer powers of variables. 　An example of a polynomial of a single indeterminate x is x2 − 4x + 7. 　An example with three indeterminates is x3 + 2xyz2 − yz + 1. 　Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science. 　For example, they are used to form polynomial equations, which encode a wide range of problems, from elementary word problems to complicated scientific problems; they are used to define polynomial functions, which appear in settings ranging from basic chemistry and physics to economics and social science; they are used in calculus and numerical analysis to approximate other functions. 　In advanced mathematics, polynomials are used to construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, which are central concepts in algebra and algebraic geometry.

Neutron

The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0 , which has a neutral (not positive or negative) charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. 　Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. 　Since protons and neutrons behave similarly within the nucleus, and each has a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit, they are both referred to as nucleons. 　Their properties and interactions are described by nuclear physics. 　Protons and neutrons are not elementary particles; each is composed of three quarks. 　The chemical properties of an atom are mostly determined by the configuration of electrons that orbit the atom's heavy nucleus. 　The electron configuration is determined by the charge of the nucleus, which is determined by the number of protons, or atomic number. 　The number of neutrons is the neutron number. 　Neutrons do not affect the electron configuration, but the sum of atomic and neutron numbers is the mass of the nucleus. 　Atoms of a chemical element that differ only in neutron number are called isotopes. 　For example, carbon, with atomic number 6, has an abundant isotope carbon-12 with 6 neutrons and a rare isotope carbon-13 with 7 neutrons. 　Some elements occur in nature with only one stable isotope, such as fluorine; Other elements occur with many stable isotopes, such as tin with ten stable isotopes, and some elements such as technetium have no stable isotope. 　The properties of an atomic nucleus depend on both atomic and neutron numbers. 　With their positive charge, the protons within the nucleus are repelled by the long-range electromagnetic force, but the much stronger, but short-range, nuclear force binds the nucleons closely together. 　Neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei, with the exception of the single-proton hydrogen nucleus. 　Neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. 　They are a primary contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes. 　The neutron is essential to the production of nuclear power. 　In the decade after the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, neutrons were used to induce many different types of nuclear transmutations. 　With the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, it was quickly realized that, if a fission event produced neutrons, each of these neutrons might cause further fission events, in a cascade known as a nuclear chain reaction. 　These events and findings led to the first self-sustaining nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile-1, 1942) and the first nuclear weapon (Trinity, 1945). 　Dedicated neutron sources like neutron generators, research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments. 　A free neutron spontaneously decays to a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino, with a mean lifetime of about 15 minutes. 　Free neutrons do not directly ionize atoms, but they do indirectly cause ionizing radiation, so they can be a biological hazard, depending on dose. 　A small natural "neutron background" flux of free neutrons exists on Earth, caused by cosmic ray showers, and by the natural radioactivity of spontaneously fissionable elements in the Earth's crust.

Infrared

Infrared (IR), sometimes called infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than those of visible light and shorter than radio waves. 　It is therefore invisible to the human eye. 　IR is generally understood to encompass wavelengths from around 1 millimeter (300 GHz) to the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum, around 700 nanometers (430 THz).　[verification needed] Longer IR wavelengths (30 μm-100 μm) are sometimes included as part of the terahertz radiation range. 　Almost all black-body radiation from objects near room temperature is at infrared wavelengths. 　As a form of electromagnetic radiation, IR propagates energy and momentum, exerts radiation pressure, and has properties corresponding to both those of a wave and of a particle, the photon. 　It was long known that fires emit invisible heat; in 1681 the pioneering experimenter Edme Mariotte showed that glass, though transparent to sunlight, obstructed radiant heat. 　In 1800 the astronomer Sir William Herschel discovered that infrared radiation is a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer. 　Slightly more than half of the energy from the Sun was eventually found, through Herschel's studies, to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. 　The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an important effect on Earth's climate. 　Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when changing rotational-vibrational movements. 　It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. 　Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range. 　Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, military, commercial, and medical applications. 　Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. 　Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds, to detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. 　Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect the overheating of electrical components. 　Military and civilian applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. 　Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm (micrometers). 　Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis, environmental monitoring, industrial facility inspections, detection of grow-ops, remote temperature sensing, short-range wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting.

Richmond

Look up Richmond in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Richmond most often refers to: Richmond, Virginia, the capital of Virginia, United States Richmond, London, a part of London Richmond, North Yorkshire, a town in England Richmond, British Columbia, a city in Canada Richmond, California, a city in California, United States Richmond may also refer to:

Spider

Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. 　They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all orders of organisms. 　Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every land habitat. 　As of August 2022[update], 50,356 spider species in 132 families have been recorded by taxonomists. 　However, there has been debate among scientists about how families should be classified, with over 20 different classifications proposed since 1900. 　Anatomically, spiders (as with all arachnids) differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into two tagmata, the cephalothorax or prosoma, and the opisthosoma, or abdomen, and joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel, however, as there is currently neither paleontological nor embryological evidence that spiders ever had a separate thorax-like division, there exists an argument against the validity of the term cephalothorax, which means fused cephalon (head) and the thorax. 　Similarly, arguments can be formed against use of the term abdomen, as the opisthosoma of all spiders contains a heart and respiratory organs, organs atypical of an abdomen. 　Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. 　In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. 　Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by hydraulic pressure. 　Their abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of glands. 　Spider webs vary widely in size, shape and the amount of sticky thread used. 　It now appears that the spiral orb web may be one of the earliest forms, and spiders that produce tangled cobwebs are more abundant and diverse than orb-weaver spiders. 　Spider-like arachnids with silk-producing spigots appeared in the Devonian period about 386 million years ago, but these animals apparently lacked spinnerets. 　True spiders have been found in Carboniferous rocks from 318 to 299 million years ago, and are very similar to the most primitive surviving suborder, the Mesothelae. 　The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appeared in the Triassic period, before 200 million years ago. 　The species Bagheera kiplingi was described as herbivorous in 2008, but all other known species are predators, mostly preying on insects and on other spiders, although a few large species also take birds and lizards. 　It is estimated that the world's 25 million tons of spiders kill 400–800 million tons of prey per year. 　Spiders use a wide range of strategies to capture prey: trapping it in sticky webs, lassoing it with sticky bolas, mimicking the prey to avoid detection, or running it down. 　Most detect prey mainly by sensing vibrations, but the active hunters have acute vision, and hunters of the genus Portia show signs of intelligence in their choice of tactics and ability to develop new ones. 　Spiders' guts are too narrow to take solids, so they liquefy their food by flooding it with digestive enzymes. 　They also grind food with the bases of their pedipalps, as arachnids do not have the mandibles that crustaceans and insects have. 　To avoid being eaten by the females, which are typically much larger, male spiders identify themselves to potential mates by a variety of complex courtship rituals. 　Males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. 　Females weave silk egg-cases, each of which may contain hundreds of eggs. 　Females of many species care for their young, for example by carrying them around or by sharing food with them. 　A minority of species are social, building communal webs that may house anywhere from a few to 50,000 individuals. 　Social behavior ranges from precarious toleration, as in the widow spiders, to co-operative hunting and food-sharing. 　Although most spiders live for at most two years, tarantulas and other mygalomorph spiders can live up to 25 years in captivity. 　While the venom of a few species is dangerous to humans, scientists are now researching the use of spider venom in medicine and as non-polluting pesticides. 　Spider silk provides a combination of lightness, strength and elasticity that is superior to that of synthetic materials, and spider silk genes have been inserted into mammals and plants to see if these can be used as silk factories. 　As a result of their wide range of behaviors, spiders have become common symbols in art and mythology symbolizing various combinations of patience, cruelty and creative powers. 　An irrational fear of spiders is called arachnophobia.

Phi

Phi (/faɪ/; uppercase Φ, lowercase φ or ϕ; Ancient Greek: ϕεῖ pheî [pʰéî̯]; Modern Greek: φι fi [fi]) is the 21st letter of the Greek alphabet. 　In Archaic and Classical Greek (c. 9th century BC to 4th century BC), it represented an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive ([pʰ]), which was the origin of its usual romanization as ⟨ph⟩. 　During the later part of Classical Antiquity, in Koine Greek (c. 4th century BC to 4th century AD), its pronunciation shifted to that of a voiceless bilabial fricative ([ɸ]), and by the Byzantine Greek period (c. 4th century AD to 15th century AD) it developed its modern pronunciation as a voiceless labiodental fricative ([f]). 　The romanization of the Modern Greek phoneme is therefore usually ⟨f⟩. 　It may be that phi originated as the letter qoppa (Ϙ, ϙ), and initially represented the sound /kʷʰ/ before shifting to Classical Greek [pʰ]. 　In traditional Greek numerals, phi has a value of 500 (φʹ) or 500,000 (͵φ). 　The Cyrillic letter Ef (Ф, ф) descends from phi. 　As with other Greek letters, lowercase phi (encoded as the Unicode character U+03C6 φ GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI) is used as a mathematical or scientific symbol. 　Some uses, such as the golden ratio,[contradictory] require the old-fashioned 'closed' glyph, which is separately encoded as the Unicode character U+03D5 ϕ GREEK PHI SYMBOL.

Eagle

Eagle is the common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. 　Eagles belong to several groups of genera, some of which are closely related. 　Most of the 68 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa. 　Outside this area, just 14 species can be found—2 in North America, 9 in Central and South America, and 3 in Australia. 　Eagles are not a natural group but denote essentially any kind of bird of prey large enough to hunt sizeable (about 50 cm long or more overall) vertebrates.

Jay

A jay is a member of a number of species of medium-sized, usually colorful and noisy, passerine birds in the crow family, Corvidae. 　The evolutionary relationships between the jays and the magpies are rather complex. 　For example, the Eurasian magpie seems more closely related to the Eurasian jay than to the East Asian blue and green magpies, whereas the blue jay is not closely related to either.

Hampshire

Hampshire (/ˈhæmpʃər/, /-ʃɪər/ (listen); abbreviated to Hants) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in western South East England on the coast of the English Channel. 　Home to approximately 1.9 million people, Hampshire is the 5th-most populous county in England. 　Its largest settlements are the cities of Southampton and Portsmouth. 　The county town is Winchester. 　It is bordered by Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, Wiltshire to the north-west, West Sussex to the south-east, and Dorset to the south-west. 　The county contains two national parks: the New Forest and part of the South Downs, which together cover 45 per cent of Hampshire. 　Settled about 14,000 years ago, Hampshire's recorded history dates to Roman Britain, when its chief town was Venta Belgarum (now Winchester). 　The county was recorded in Domesday Book as divided into 44 hundreds. 　From the 12th century, the ports settlements grew due to increasing trade with the European mainland resulting from the wool and cloth, fishing, and shipbuilding industries. 　This meant by the 16th century, Southampton had become more populous than Winchester. 　In 20th century conflicts, including World War One and Two, Hampshire played a crucial military role due to its ports. 　At present, the county is divided into 13 non-metropolitan districts. 　Southampton and Portsmouth are unitary authorities and 7 hold borough status. 　This means that with the exceptions of Southampton and Portsmouth, the county is locally governed by a combination of the County Council and non-metropolitan district councils. 　In 1974, the Isle of Wight was made a separate ceremonial county from Hampshire and the towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch were transferred to Dorset. 　Hampshire is the home of Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, and Florence Nightingale, and the birthplace of Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

Bench (geology)

In geomorphology, geography and geology, a bench or benchland is a long, relatively narrow strip of relatively level or gently inclined land that is bounded by distinctly steeper slopes above and below it. 　Benches can be of different origins and created by very different geomorphic processes. 　First, the differential erosion of rocks or sediments of varying hardness and resistance to erosion can create benches. 　Earth scientists called such benches "structural benches." 　Second, other benches are narrow fluvial terraces created by the abandonment of a floodplain by a river or stream and entrenchment of the river valley into it. 　Finally, a bench is also the name of a narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff that was created by waves or other physical or chemical erosion near the shoreline. 　These benches are typically referred to as either "coastal benches," "wave-cut benches," or "wave-cut platforms." 　In mining, a bench is a narrow, strip of land cut into the side of an open-pit mine. 　These step-like zones are created along the walls of an open-pit mine for access and mining.

Nigeria

Coordinates: 8°N 10°E / 8°N 10°E / 8; 10 Nigeria (/naɪˈdʒɪəriə/ ny-JEER-ee-ə), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. 　It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean. 　It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's sixth-most populous country. 　Nigeria borders Niger in the north, Chad in the northeast, Cameroon in the east, and Benin in the west. 　Nigeria is a federal republic comprising 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where the capital, Abuja, is located. 　The largest city in Nigeria is Lagos, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world and the second-largest in Africa. 　Nigeria has been home to several indigenous pre-colonial states and kingdoms since the second millennium BC, with the Nok civilization in the 15th century BC, marking the first internal unification in the country. 　The modern state originated with British colonialization in the 19th century, taking its present territorial shape with the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914 by Lord Lugard. 　The British set up administrative and legal structures while practising indirect rule through traditional chiefdoms in the Nigeria region. 　Nigeria became a formally independent federation on 1 October 1960. 　It experienced a civil war from 1967 to 1970, followed by a succession of military dictatorships and democratically elected civilian governments until achieving a stable democracy in the 1999 presidential election. 　The 2015 general election was the first time an incumbent president failed to be re-elected. 　Nigeria is a multinational state inhabited by more than 250 ethnic groups speaking 500 distinct languages, all identifying with a wide variety of cultures. 　The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausa in the north, Yoruba in the west, and Igbo in the east, together constituting over 60% of the total population. 　The official language is English, chosen to facilitate linguistic unity at the national level. 　Nigeria's constitution ensures freedom of religion and it is home to some of the world's largest Muslim and Christian populations. 　Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Muslims, who live mostly in the north, and Christians, who live mostly in the south; indigenous religions, such as those native to the Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities, are in the minority. 　Nigeria is a regional power in Africa and a middle and emerging power in international affairs. 　Nigeria's economy is the largest in Africa, the 31st-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and 26th-largest by PPP. 　Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa owing to its large population and economy and is considered to be an emerging market by the World Bank. 　However, the country ranks very low in the Human Development Index and remains one of the most corrupt nations in the world. 　Nigeria is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, NAM, the Economic Community of West African States, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. 　It is also a member of the informal MINT group of countries and is one of the Next Eleven economies.

Bloody

Look up bloody in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Bloody, as an adjective or adverb, is a commonly used expletive attributive in British English, Australian English, Irish English, Indian English and a number of other Commonwealth nations. 　It has been used as an intensive since at least the 1670s. 　Considered respectable until about 1750, it was heavily tabooed during c. 　1750–1920, considered equivalent to heavily obscene or profane speech.　[citation needed] Public use continued to be seen as controversial until the 1960s, but since then, the word has become a comparatively mild expletive or intensifier.　[citation needed] In American English, the word is used almost exclusively in its literal sense, and when used as an intensifier it is seen by American audiences as a stereotypical marker of British English, without any significant obscene or profane connotation. 　Canadian English usage is similar to American English, but use as an expletive adverb may be considered slightly vulgar depending on the circumstances.

Harm

Wikiquote has quotations related to Harm. 　Look up harm in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Harm is a moral and legal concept. 　Bernard Gert construes harm as any of the following: pain death disability mortality loss of ability or freedom loss of pleasure. 　Joel Feinberg gives an account of harm as setbacks to interests. 　He distinguishes welfare interests from ulterior interests. 　Hence on his view there are two kinds of harm. 　Welfare interests are interests in the continuance for a foreseeable interval of one's life, and the interests in one's own physical health and vigor, the integrity and normal functioning of one's body, the absence of absorbing pain and suffering or grotesque disfigurement, minimal intellectual acuity, emotional stability, the absence of groundless anxieties and resentments, the capacity to engage normally in social intercourse and to enjoy and maintain friendships, at least minimal income and financial security, a tolerable social and physical environment, and a certain amount of freedom from interference and coercion. 　Ulterior interests are "a person's more ultimate goals and aspirations", such as "producing good novels or works of art, solving a crucial scientific problem, achieving high political office, successfully raising a family".

Panic

Panic is a sudden sensation of fear, which is so strong as to dominate or prevent reason and logical thinking, replacing it with overwhelming feelings of anxiety and frantic agitation consistent with an animalistic fight-or-flight reaction. 　Panic may occur singularly in individuals or manifest suddenly in large groups as mass panic (closely related to herd behavior).

Neutrino

A neutrino (/njuːˈtriːnoʊ/ new-TREE-noh; denoted by the Greek letter ν) is a fermion (an elementary particle with spin of 1/2) that interacts only via the weak interaction and gravity. 　The neutrino is so named because it is electrically neutral and because its rest mass is so small (-ino) that it was long thought to be zero. 　The rest mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the other known elementary particles excluding massless particles. 　The weak force has a very short range, the gravitational interaction is extremely weak due to the very small mass of the neutrino, and neutrinos do not participate in the strong interaction. 　Thus, neutrinos typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. 　Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three leptonic flavors: electron neutrinos ( ν e), muon neutrinos ( ν μ), or tau neutrinos ( ν τ), in association with the corresponding charged lepton. 　Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known that there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values (the smallest of which may even be zero), but the three masses do not uniquely correspond to the three flavors. 　A neutrino created with a specific flavor is a specific mixture of all three mass states (a quantum superposition). 　Similar to some other neutral particles, neutrinos oscillate between different flavors in flight as a consequence. 　For example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino. 　The three mass values are not yet known as of 2022, but laboratory experiments and cosmological observations have determined the differences of their squares, an upper limit on their sum (< 2.14×10−37 kg), and an upper limit on the mass of the electron neutrino. 　For each neutrino, there also exists a corresponding antiparticle, called an antineutrino, which also has spin of 1/2 and no electric charge. 　Antineutrinos are distinguished from neutrinos by having opposite-signed lepton number and weak isospin, and right-handed instead of left-handed chirality. 　To conserve total lepton number (in nuclear beta decay), electron neutrinos only appear together with positrons (anti-electrons) or electron-antineutrinos, whereas electron antineutrinos only appear with electrons or electron neutrinos. 　Neutrinos are created by various radioactive decays; the following list is not exhaustive, but includes some of those processes: beta decay of atomic nuclei or hadrons, natural nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the core of a star artificial nuclear reactions in nuclear reactors, nuclear bombs, or particle accelerators during a supernova during the spin-down of a neutron star when cosmic rays or accelerated particle beams strike atoms. 　The majority of neutrinos which are detected about the Earth are from nuclear reactions inside the Sun. 　At the surface of the Earth, the flux is about 65 billion (6.5×1010) solar neutrinos, per second per square centimeter. 　Neutrinos can be used for tomography of the interior of the earth.