Chart

A chart (sometimes known as a graph) is a graphical representation for data visualization, in which "the data is represented by symbols, such as bars in a bar chart, lines in a line chart, or slices in a pie chart". 　A chart can represent tabular numeric data, functions or some kinds of quality structure and provides different info. 　The term "chart" as a graphical representation of data has multiple meanings: A data chart is a type of diagram or graph, that organizes and represents a set of numerical or qualitative data. 　Maps that are adorned with extra information (map surround) for a specific purpose are often known as charts, such as a nautical chart or aeronautical chart, typically spread over several map sheets. 　Other domain-specific constructs are sometimes called charts, such as the chord chart in music notation or a record chart for album popularity. 　Charts are often used to ease understanding of large quantities of data and the relationships between parts of the data. 　Charts can usually be read more quickly than the raw data. 　They are used in a wide variety of fields, and can be created by hand (often on graph paper) or by computer using a charting application. 　Certain types of charts are more useful for presenting a given data set than others. 　For example, data that presents percentages in different groups (such as "satisfied, not satisfied, unsure") are often displayed in a pie chart, but maybe more easily understood when presented in a horizontal bar chart. 　On the other hand, data that represents numbers that change over a period of time (such as "annual revenue from 1990 to 2000") might be best shown as a line chart.

Labour

Look up Labour, labour, Labor, or labor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Labour or labor may refer to: Childbirth, the delivery of a baby Labour (human activity), or work Manual labour, physical work Wage labour, a socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer Organized labour and the labour movement, consisting principally of labour unions The Labour Party (UK)

Dream

A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. 　Humans spend about two hours dreaming per night, and each dream lasts around 5 to 20 minutes, although the dreamer may perceive the dream as being much longer than this. 　The content and function of dreams have been topics of scientific, philosophical and religious interest throughout recorded history. 　Dream interpretation, practiced by the Babylonians in the third millennium BCE and even earlier by the ancient Sumerians, figures prominently in religious texts in several traditions, and has played a lead role in psychotherapy. 　The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology. 　Most modern dream study focuses on the neurophysiology of dreams and on proposing and testing hypotheses regarding dream function. 　It is not known where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple regions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind. 　The human dream experience and what to make of it has undergone sizable shifts over the course of history. 　Long ago, according to writings from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, dreams dictated post-dream behaviors to an extent sharply reduced in later millennia. 　These ancient writings about dreams highlight visitation dreams, where a dream figure, usually a deity or a prominent forebear, commands the dreamer to take specific actions and may predict future events. 　Framing the dream experience varies across cultures as well as through time. 　Dreaming and sleep are intertwined. 　Dreams occur mainly in the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of sleep—when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake. 　Because REM sleep is detectable in many species, and because research suggests that all mammals experience REM, linking dreams to REM sleep has led to conjectures that animals dream. 　However, humans dream during non-REM sleep, also, and not all REM awakenings elicit dream reports. 　To be studied, a dream must first be reduced to a verbal report, which is an account of the subject's memory of the dream, not the subject's dream experience itself. 　So, dreaming by non-humans is currently unprovable, as is dreaming by human fetuses and pre-verbal infants.

Gamma

Gamma /ˈɡæmə/ (uppercase Γ, lowercase γ; Greek: γάμμα gámma) is the third letter of the Greek alphabet. 　In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 3. 　In Ancient Greek, the letter gamma represented a voiced velar stop IPA: [ɡ]. 　In Modern Greek, this letter represents either a voiced velar fricative IPA: [ɣ] or a voiced palatal fricative IPA: [ʝ] (while /g/ in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as γκ). 　In the International Phonetic Alphabet and other modern Latin-alphabet based phonetic notations, it represents the voiced velar fricative.

Recognition (sociology)

Recognition in sociology is the public acknowledgment of a person's status or merits (achievements, virtues, service, etc.). 　In psychology, excessively seeking for recognition is regarded as one of the defining traits of a narcissistic personality disorder. 　Another example of recognition is when some person is accorded some special status, such as title or classification. 　According to Charles Taylor, recognition of one's identity is both a fundamental need and a right, and non- or misrecognition is a form of oppression. 　In the workplace, recognition has been suggested to increase employee engagement, continuous improvement behaviour, trust in the organization, intention to stay, and satisfaction with management. 　Others, like Alfie Kohn in Punished by Rewards, point out the dangers of using praise to show recognition, since it may induce compliance in the short-term, but negatively impact quality in the workplace long-term.

Parameter

A parameter (from Ancient Greek παρά (pará) 'beside, subsidiary', and μέτρον (métron) 'measure'), generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.). 　That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when identifying the system, or when evaluating its performance, status, condition, etc. 　Parameter has more specific meanings within various disciplines, including mathematics, computer programming, engineering, statistics, logic, linguistics, and electronic musical composition. 　In addition to its technical uses, there are also extended uses, especially in non-scientific contexts, where it is used to mean defining characteristics or boundaries, as in the phrases 'test parameters' or 'game play parameters'.

Count

Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. 　Especially in earlier medieval periods the term often implied not only a certain status, but also that the count had specific responsibilities or offices. 　The etymologically related English term "county" denoted the territories associated with some countships, but not all. 　Although the term count was not generally used in England, after the 1066 conquest by the Normans, the European term "count" was the normal translation used for the English title of "earl", and the wives of earls are still referred to as countesses.

Graph (topology)

In topology, a branch of mathematics, a graph is a topological space which arises from a usual graph G = ( E , V ) {\displaystyle G=(E,V)} by replacing vertices by points and each edge e = x y ∈ E {\displaystyle e=xy\in E} by a copy of the unit interval I = [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle I=[0,1]} , where 0 {\displaystyle 0} is identified with the point associated to x {\displaystyle x} and 1 {\displaystyle 1} with the point associated to y {\displaystyle y} . 　That is, as topological spaces, graphs are exactly the simplicial 1-complexes and also exactly the one-dimensional CW complexes. 　Thus, in particular, it bears the quotient topology of the set X 0 ⊔ ⨆ e ∈ E I e {\displaystyle X_{0}\sqcup \bigsqcup _{e\in E}I_{e}} under the quotient map used for gluing. 　Here X 0 {\displaystyle X_{0}} is the 0-skeleton (consisting of one point for each vertex x ∈ V {\displaystyle x\in V} ), I e {\displaystyle I_{e}} are the intervals ("closed one-dimensional unit balls") glued to it, one for each edge e ∈ E {\displaystyle e\in E} , and ⊔ {\displaystyle \sqcup } is the disjoint union. 　The topology on this space is called the graph topology.

Bought

Bought is a 1931 American Pre-Code drama film produced and released by Warner Bros. and directed by Archie Mayo. 　The movie stars Constance Bennett and features Ben Lyon, Richard Bennett and Dorothy Peterson. 　It is based on the 1930 novel Jackdaw's Strut by Harriet Henry. 　Warner Bros. paid Bennett an all-time high salary of $30,000 a week for her work in this film.

Relief

Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. 　The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise. 　To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. 　When a relief is carved into a flat surface of stone (relief sculpture) or wood (relief carving), the field is actually lowered, leaving the unsculpted areas seeming higher. 　The approach requires a lot of chiselling away of the background, which takes a long time. 　On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round, especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, particularly in stone. 　In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be simply added to or raised up from the background. 　Monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. 　There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the sculpted form from the field, for which the Italian and French terms are still sometimes used in English. 　The full range includes high relief (alto-rilievo, haut-relief), where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas, mid-relief (mezzo-rilievo), low relief (basso-rilievo), or French: bas-relief (French pronunciation: ​[baʁəljɛf]), and shallow-relief or rilievo schiacciato, where the plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements. 　There is also sunk relief, which was mainly restricted to Ancient Egypt (see below). 　However, the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only terms used to discuss most work. 　The definition of these terms is somewhat variable, and many works combine areas in more than one of them, rarely sliding between them in a single figure; accordingly some writers prefer to avoid all distinctions. 　The opposite of relief sculpture is counter-relief, intaglio, or cavo-rilievo, where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it; this is very rare in monumental sculpture. 　Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, though they are rarely seen in "sunk relief" and are usual in "bas-relief" and "counter-relief". 　Works in the technique are described as "in relief", and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is "a relief". 　Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of smaller settings, and a sequence of several panels or sections of relief may represent an extended narrative. 　Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with many figures and very active poses, such as battles, than free-standing "sculpture in the round". 　Most ancient architectural reliefs were originally painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. 　The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art, and may be of any subject. 　Rock reliefs are those carved into solid rock in the open air (if inside caves, whether natural or man-made, they are more likely to be called "rock-cut"). 　This type is found in many cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. 　A stele is a single standing stone; many of these carry reliefs.

Aid

In international relations, aid (also known as international aid, overseas aid, foreign aid, economic aid or foreign assistance) is – from the perspective of governments – a voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another. 　Aid may serve one or more functions: it may be given as a signal of diplomatic approval, or to strengthen a military ally, to reward a government for behavior desired by the donor, to extend the donor's cultural influence, to provide infrastructure needed by the donor for resource extraction from the recipient country, or to gain other kinds of commercial access. 　Countries may provide aid for further diplomatic reasons. 　Humanitarian and altruistic purposes are often reasons for foreign assistance. 　Aid may be given by individuals, private organizations, or governments. 　Standards delimiting exactly the types of transfers considered "aid" vary from country to country. 　For example, the United States government discontinued the reporting of military aid as part of its foreign aid figures in 1958. 　The most widely used measure of aid is "Official Development Assistance" (ODA).

Error

An error (from the Latin error, meaning "wandering") is an action which is inaccurate or incorrect. 　In some usages, an error is synonymous with a mistake. 　The etymology derives from the Latin term 'errare', meaning 'to stray'. 　In statistics, "error" refers to the difference between the value which has been computed and the correct value. 　An error could result in failure or in a deviation from the intended performance or behavior.

Religion

Religion is a range of social-cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements—although there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion. 　Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacredness, faith, and a supernatural being or beings. 　Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities or saints), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, matrimonial and funerary services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, and/or public service. 　Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred texts, symbols and holy places, that primarily aim to give life meaning. 　Religions may contain symbolic tales that may attempt to explain the origin of life, the universe, and other phenomena; some followers believe these to be true stories. 　Traditionally, both faith and reason have been considered sources of religious beliefs. 　There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, though nearly all of them have regionally based, relatively small followings. 　Four religions—Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism—account for over 77% of the world's population, and 92% of the world either follows one of those four religions or identifies as nonreligious, meaning that the remaining 9,000+ faiths account for only 8% of the population combined. 　The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, atheists, and agnostics, although many in the demographic still have various religious beliefs. 　A portion of the population, mostly located in Africa and Asia, are members of new religious movements. 　Scholars have indicated that global religiosity may be increasing due to religious countries having generally higher birth rates. 　The study of religion comprises a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, philosophy of religion, comparative religion, and social scientific studies. 　Theories of religion offer various explanations for its origins and workings, including the ontological foundations of religious being and belief.

Illinois

Illinois (/ˌɪlɪˈnɔɪ/ (listen) IL-ə-NOY) is a state in the Midwestern United States. 　Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. 　Other metropolitan areas include Peoria and Rockford, as well as Springfield, its capital. 　Of the fifty U.S. states, Illinois has the fifth-largest gross domestic product (GDP), the sixth-largest population, and the 25th-largest land area. 　Illinois has a highly diverse economy, with the global city of Chicago in the northeast, major industrial and agricultural hubs in the north and center, and natural resources such as coal, timber, and petroleum in the south. 　Owing to its central location and favorable geography, the state is a major transportation hub: the Port of Chicago has access to the Atlantic Ocean through the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence Seaway and to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River via the Illinois Waterway. 　Additionally, the Mississippi, Ohio, and Wabash rivers form parts of the state's boundaries. 　Chicago's O'Hare International Airport has been among the world's ten busiest airports for decades. 　Illinois has long been considered a microcosm of the United States and a bellwether in American culture, exemplified by the phrase Will it play in Peoria?　. 　What is now Illinois was inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous cultures, including the advanced civilization centered in the Cahokia region. 　The French were the first Europeans to arrive, settling near the Mississippi River in the 17th century, in the region they called Illinois Country, as part of the sprawling colony of New France. 　Following U.S. independence in 1783, American settlers began arriving from Kentucky via the Ohio River, and the population grew from south to north. 　Illinois was part of the United States' oldest territory, the Northwest Territory, and in 1818 it achieved statehood. 　The Erie Canal brought increased commercial activity in the Great Lakes, and the small settlement of Chicago became one of the fastest growing cities in the world, benefiting from its location as one of the few natural harbors in southwestern Lake Michigan. 　The invention of the self-scouring steel plow by Illinoisan John Deere turned the state's rich prairie into some of the world's most productive and valuable farmland, attracting immigrant farmers from Germany and Sweden. 　In the mid-19th century, the Illinois and Michigan Canal and a sprawling railroad network greatly facilitated trade, commerce, and settlement, making the state a transportation hub for the nation. 　By 1900, the growth of industrial jobs in the northern cities, and coal mining in the central and southern areas, attracted immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. 　Illinois became one of America's most industrialized states and remains a major manufacturing center. 　The Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans, particularly in Chicago, who founded the city's famous jazz and blues cultures. 　Chicago became a leading cultural, economic, and population center and is today one of the world's major commercial centers; its metropolitan area, informally referred to as Chicagoland, holds about 65% of the state's 12.8 million residents. 　Three U.S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois: Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and Barack Obama; additionally, Ronald Reagan was born and raised in the state. 　Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official state slogan Land of Lincoln, which has been displayed on its license plates since 1954. 　The state is the site of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield and the future home of the Barack Obama Presidential Center in Chicago.

Universe

The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. 　The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. 　According to this theory, space and time emerged together 13.787±0.020 billion years ago, and the universe has been expanding ever since the Big Bang. 　While the spatial size of the entire universe is unknown, it is possible to measure the size of the observable universe, which is approximately 93 billion light-years in diameter at the present day. 　Some of the earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center. 　Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. 　In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon Copernicus's work as well as Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion and observations by Tycho Brahe. 　Further observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun is one of a few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way, which is one of a few hundred billion galaxies in the universe. 　Many of the stars in a galaxy have planets. 　At the largest scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the universe has neither an edge nor a center. 　At smaller scales, galaxies are distributed in clusters and superclusters which form immense filaments and voids in space, creating a vast foam-like structure. 　Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the universe had a beginning and that space has been expanding since then at an increasing rate. 　According to the Big Bang theory, the energy and matter initially present have become less dense as the universe expanded. 　After an initial accelerated expansion called the inflationary epoch at around 10−32 seconds, and the separation of the four known fundamental forces, the universe gradually cooled and continued to expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. 　Dark matter gradually gathered, forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under the influence of gravity. 　Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to the places where dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and everything else seen today. 　From studying the movement of galaxies, it has been discovered that the universe contains much more matter than is accounted for by visible objects; stars, galaxies, nebulas and interstellar gas. 　This unseen matter is known as dark matter (dark means that there is a wide range of strong indirect evidence that it exists, but we have not yet detected it directly). 　The ΛCDM model is the most widely accepted model of the universe. 　It suggests that about 69.2%±1.2% [2015] of the mass and energy in the universe is a cosmological constant (or, in extensions to ΛCDM, other forms of dark energy, such as a scalar field) which is responsible for the current expansion of space, and about 25.8%±1.1% [2015] is dark matter. 　Ordinary ('baryonic') matter is therefore only 4.84%±0.1% [2015] of the physical universe. 　Stars, planets, and visible gas clouds only form about 6% of the ordinary matter. 　There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate, doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible. 　Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses, in which our universe might be one among many universes that likewise exist.

Cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. 　These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. 　Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. 　While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes. 　Over 100 types of cancers affect humans. 　Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths. 　Another 10% are due to obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity or excessive drinking of alcohol. 　Other factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing radiation, and environmental pollutants. 　In the developing world, 15% of cancers are due to infections such as Helicobacter pylori, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human papillomavirus infection, Epstein–Barr virus and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). 　These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell. 　Typically, many genetic changes are required before cancer develops. 　Approximately 5–10% of cancers are due to inherited genetic defects. 　Cancer can be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests. 　It is then typically further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy. 　The risk of developing certain cancers can be reduced by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, limiting alcohol intake, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, eating resistant starch, vaccination against certain infectious diseases, limiting consumption of processed meat and red meat, and limiting exposure to direct sunlight. 　Early detection through screening is useful for cervical and colorectal cancer. 　The benefits of screening for breast cancer are controversial. 　Cancer is often treated with some combination of radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapy. 　Pain and symptom management are an important part of care. 　Palliative care is particularly important in people with advanced disease. 　The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of disease at the start of treatment. 　In children under 15 at diagnosis, the five-year survival rate in the developed world is on average 80%. 　For cancer in the United States, the average five-year survival rate is 66%. 　In 2015, about 90.5 million people worldwide had cancer. 　In 2019, annual cancer cases grew by 23.6 million people and there were 10 million deaths worldwide, representing over the previous decade increases of 26% and 21%, respectively. 　The most common types of cancer in males are lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and stomach cancer. 　In females, the most common types are breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and cervical cancer. 　If skin cancer other than melanoma were included in total new cancer cases each year, it would account for around 40% of cases. 　In children, acute lymphoblastic leukemia and brain tumors are most common, except in Africa, where non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs more often. 　In 2012, about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed with cancer. 　The risk of cancer increases significantly with age, and many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries. 　Rates are increasing as more people live to an old age and as lifestyle changes occur in the developing world. 　The global total economic costs of cancer were estimated at US$1.16 trillion per year as of 2010[update].

Cancer (astrology)

Cancer (♋︎) (Greek: Καρκίνος, romanized: Karkínos, Latin for "crab") is the fourth astrological sign in the zodiac, originating from the constellation of Cancer. 　It spans from 90° to 120° celestial longitude. 　Under the tropical zodiac, the Sun transits this area between approximately June 22 and July 22. 　In astrology, Cancer is the cardinal sign of the Water trigon, which is made up of Cancer, Pisces, and Scorpio. 　It is one of the six negative signs, and its ruling planet is the Moon. 　Though some depictions of Cancer feature a lobster or crayfish, the sign is most often represented by the crab, based on the Karkinos. 　Cancer's opposite sign is Capricorn.

Cancer (mythology)

Cancer (from Latin; sometimes known by the transliteration Carcinos, from the original Greek Καρκίνος: Karkinos) or, simply the Crab, is a giant crab in Greek mythology that inhabited the lagoon of Lerna. 　He is a secondary character in the myth of the twelve labors of Heracles, who attacks Heracles on Hera's orders, while Heracles is in the midst of fighting the Hydra of Lerna. 　Heracles kills the Crab, who is rewarded for his efforts by Hera turning him into the constellation of Cancer. 　Since it is not a main element of the myth, it does not always appear in the versions that have reached the present day; nevertheless, classic mythographers, astronomers, historians or philosophers such as Plato, the Pseudo-Eratosthenes, the Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus mention the character in their texts. 　One of the most common interpretations of the myth associates it with a 22nd century B.C. battle in the Peloponnese, which resulted in the destruction of Lerna (Minoan-influenced) by pre-Mycenaean peoples In art, Carcinos is often depicted as a detail of the myth of the Hydra or as an image of the Zodiac sign and the constellation to which it gives its name.

Federation

A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). 　In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision, neither by the component states nor the federal political body. 　Alternatively, a federation is a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs. 　It is often argued that federal states where the central government has overriding powers are not truly federal states. 　For example, such overriding powers may include: the constitutional authority to suspend a constituent state's government by invoking gross mismanagement or civil unrest, or to adopt national legislation that overrides or infringes on the constituent states' powers by invoking the central government's constitutional authority to ensure "peace and good government" or to implement obligations contracted under an international treaty. 　The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is considered to be federalist, or to be an example of federalism. 　It can be considered the opposite of another system, the unitary state. 　France, for example, has been unitary for many centuries. 　The Austrian Empire was a unitary state with crown lands, after the transformation into the Austria-Hungary monarchy the remaining crown lands of so-called Cisleithania became federated as Länder of the Republic of Austria through the implementation of its constitution. 　Germany, with its 16 states, or Länder, is an example of a federation. 　Federations are often multi-ethnic and cover a large area of territory (such as Russia, the United States, Canada, India, or Brazil), but neither is necessarily the case (such as Saint Kitts and Nevis or the Federated States of Micronesia). 　Several ancient chiefdoms and kingdoms, such as the 4th-century BCE League of Corinth, Noricum in Central Europe, and the Iroquois Confederacy in pre-Columbian North America, could be described as federations or confederations. 　The Old Swiss Confederacy was an early example of formal non-unitary statehood. 　Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, transformed into federal states upon independence such as the United States, and various countries in Latin America (see Spanish American wars of independence). 　Some of the New World federations failed; the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states less than 20 years after its founding. 　Others, such as Argentina, have shifted between federal, confederal, and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. 　Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy, and Venezuela became a federation after the Federal War. 　Australia and Canada are also federations. 　Germany is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815. 　The North German Confederation, the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations. 　Founded in 1922, the Soviet Union was formally a federation of Soviet republics, autonomous republics and other federal subjects, though in practice highly centralized under the government of the Soviet Union. 　The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system. 　India, Pakistan, Nigeria and Malaysia (then Federation of Malaya) became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire. 　In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Iraq since 2005. 　With the United States Constitution having become effective on 4 March 1789, the United States is the oldest surviving federation, while the newest federation is Nepal, after its constitution went into effect on 20 September 2015.

Federation (information technology)

A federation is a group of computing or network providers agreeing upon standards of operation in a collective fashion. 　The term may be used when describing the inter-operation of two distinct, formally disconnected, telecommunications networks that may have different internal structures. 　The term "federated cloud" refers to facilitating the interconnection of two or more geographically separate computing clouds. 　The term may also be used when groups attempt to delegate collective authority of development to prevent fragmentation. 　In a telecommunication interconnection, the internal modi operandi of the different systems are irrelevant to the existence of a federation. 　Joining two distinct networks: Yahoo! and Microsoft announced that Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger would be interoperable. 　Collective authority: The MIT X Consortium was founded in 1988 to prevent fragmentation in development of the X Window System. 　OpenID, a form of federated identity. 　In networking systems, to be federated means users are able to send messages from one network to the other.　[citation needed] This is not the same as having a client that can operate with both networks, but interacts with both independently. 　For example, in 2009, Google allowed GMail users to log into their AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) accounts from GMail. 　One could not send messages from GTalk accounts or XMPP (which Google/GTalk is federated with—XMPP lingo for federation is s2s, which Facebook and MSN Live's implementations do not support) to AIM screen names, nor vice versa. 　In May 2011, AIM and Gmail federated, allowing users of each network to add and communicate with each other.

Keeping

Look up keeping in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Keeping is a surname. 　Notable people with the surname include: Charles Keeping (1924–1988), British illustrator, children's book author and lithographer Damien Keeping (born 1982), Australian rules football coach Frederick Keeping (1867–1950), British racing cyclist Jack Keeping (born 1996), English cricketer Janet Keeping, leader of the Green Party of Alberta Jeff Keeping (born 1982), Canadian Football League defensive tackle Max Keeping (1942–2015), Canadian television news anchor Michael Keeping (1902–1984), English footballer and manager (son of Frederick Keeping) Tom Keeping (born 1942), Canadian politician Walter Keeping (1854–1888), British geologist and museum curator

Description

Look up description in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Description is the pattern of narrative development that aims to make vivid a place, object, character, or group. 　Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse), along with exposition, argumentation, and narration. 　In practice it would be difficult to write literature that drew on just one of the four basic modes.

Crown

A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. 　A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. 　The word itself is used, particularly in Commonwealth countries, as an abstract name for the monarchy itself, as distinct from the individual who inhabits it (that is, The Crown). 　A specific type of crown (or coronet for lower ranks of peerage) is employed in heraldry under strict rules. 　Indeed, some monarchies never had a physical crown, just a heraldic representation, as in the constitutional kingdom of Belgium, where no coronation ever took place; the royal installation is done by a solemn oath in parliament, wearing a military uniform: the King is not acknowledged as by divine right, but assumes the only hereditary public office in the service of the law; so he in turn will swear in all members of "his" federal government.

Combination

In mathematics, a combination is a selection of items from a set that has distinct members, such that the order of selection does not matter (unlike permutations). 　For example, given three fruits, say an apple, an orange and a pear, there are three combinations of two that can be drawn from this set: an apple and a pear; an apple and an orange; or a pear and an orange. 　More formally, a k-combination of a set S is a subset of k distinct elements of S. So, two combinations are identical if and only if each combination has the same members. 　(The arrangement of the members in each set does not matter.) 　If the set has n elements, the number of k-combinations, denoted by C ( n , k ) {\displaystyle C(n,k)} or C k n {\displaystyle C_{k}^{n}} , is equal to the binomial coefficient ( n k ) = n ( n − 1 ) ⋯ ( n − k + 1 ) k ( k − 1 ) ⋯ 1 , {\displaystyle {\binom {n}{k}}={\frac {n(n-1)\dotsb (n-k+1)}{k(k-1)\dotsb 1}},} which can be written using factorials as n ! k ! 　( n − k ) ! 　{\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {n!　}{k!　(n-k)!　}}} whenever k ≤ n {\displaystyle k\leq n} , and which is zero when k > n {\displaystyle k>n} . 　This formula can be derived from the fact that each k-combination of a set S of n members has k ! 　{\displaystyle k!　} permutations so P k n = C k n × k ! 　{\displaystyle P_{k}^{n}=C_{k}^{n}\times k!　} or C k n = P k n / k ! 　{\displaystyle C_{k}^{n}=P_{k}^{n}/k!　} . 　The set of all k-combinations of a set S is often denoted by ( S k ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\binom {S}{k}}} . 　A combination is a combination of n things taken k at a time without repetition. 　To refer to combinations in which repetition is allowed, the terms k-combination with repetition, k-multiset, or k-selection, are often used. 　If, in the above example, it were possible to have two of any one kind of fruit there would be 3 more 2-selections: one with two apples, one with two oranges, and one with two pears. 　Although the set of three fruits was small enough to write a complete list of combinations, this becomes impractical as the size of the set increases. 　For example, a poker hand can be described as a 5-combination (k = 5) of cards from a 52 card deck (n = 52). 　The 5 cards of the hand are all distinct, and the order of cards in the hand does not matter. 　There are 2,598,960 such combinations, and the chance of drawing any one hand at random is 1 / 2,598,960.