Horse

The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. 　It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. 　The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. 　Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. 　Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. 　These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated. 　There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. 　Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess an excellent sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. 　Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults. 　Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. 　Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four. 　They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. 　Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. 　There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses. 　Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. 　Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. 　Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. 　Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.

Wing

A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. 　Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. 　A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. 　The lift a wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. 　A high lift-to-drag ratio requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings through the air at sufficient lift. 　Lifting structures used in water include various foils, such as hydrofoils. 　Hydrodynamics is the governing science, rather than aerodynamics. 　Applications of underwater foils occur in hydroplanes, sailboats and submarines.

Flow (psychology)

In positive psychology, a flow state, also known colloquially as being in the zone, is the mental state in which a person performing some activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. 　In essence, flow is characterized by the complete absorption in what one does, and a resulting transformation in one's sense of time. 　Flow is the melting together of action and consciousness; the state of finding a balance between a skill and how challenging that task is. 　It requires a high level of concentration, however; it should be effortless. 　Flow is used as a coping skill for stress and anxiety when productively pursuing a form of leisure that matches one's skill set. 　Named by the psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi in 1975, the concept has been widely referred to across a variety of fields (and is particularly well recognized in occupational therapy), though the concept has been claimed to have existed for thousands of years under other names.　[need quotation to verify] The flow state shares many characteristics with hyperfocus. 　However, hyperfocus is not always described in a positive light. 　Some examples include spending "too much" time playing video games or becoming pleasurably absorbed by one aspect of an assignment or task to the detriment of the overall assignment. 　In some cases, hyperfocus can "capture" a person, perhaps causing them to appear unfocused or to start several projects, but complete few. 　Hyperfocus is often mentioned "in the context of autism, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – conditions that have consequences on attentional abilities."

Iron

Iron (/ˈaɪən/ or /ˈaɪərn/) is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from Latin: ferrum) and atomic number 26. 　It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. 　It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, just ahead of oxygen (32.1% and 30.1%, respectively), forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. 　It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust, being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state, with its ores also being found there. 　Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F) or higher, about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper. 　Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during the 2nd millennium BCE and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys—in some regions, only around 1200 BCE. 　That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. 　In the modern world, iron alloys, such as steel, stainless steel, cast iron and special steels, are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. 　The iron and steel industry is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. 　Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. 　Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. 　Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than the metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. 　High-purity irons (e.g. electrolytic iron) are more resistant to corrosion. 　The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin. 　These two proteins play essential roles in vertebrate metabolism, respectively oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles. 　To maintain the necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. 　Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. 　Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III). 　Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium. 　Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +7. 　Iron also forms many coordination compounds; some of them, such as ferrocene, ferrioxalate, and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications.

Journal

Look up journal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　A journal, from the Old French journal (meaning "daily"), may refer to: Bullet journal, a method of personal organization Personal journal, a record of personal secretive thoughts and as open book to personal therapy or used to feel connected to oneself Diary, a record of what happened over the course of a day or other period Daybook, also known as a general journal, a daily record of financial transactions Logbook, a record of events important to the operation of a vehicle, facility, or otherwise Record (disambiguation) Transaction log, a chronological record of data processing Travel journal In publishing, journal can refer to various periodicals or serials: Academic journal, an academic or scholarly periodical Scientific journal, an academic journal focusing on science Medical journal, an academic journal focusing on medicine Law review, a professional journal focusing on legal interpretation Magazine, non-academic or scholarly periodicals in general Trade magazine, a magazine of interest to those of a particular profession or trade Literary magazine, a magazine devoted to literature in a broad sense Newspaper, a periodical covering general news and current events in politics, business, sports and art Gazette, a type of newspaper, often a newspaper of record Government gazette, a government newspaper which publishes public or legal notices Journal may also refer to:

Tower

A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant factor. 　Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, self-supporting structures. 　Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are built not to be habitable but to serve other functions using the height of the tower. 　For example, the height of a clock tower improves the visibility of the clock, and the height of a tower in a fortified building such as a castle increases the visibility of the surroundings for defensive purposes. 　Towers may also be built for observation, leisure, or telecommunication purposes. 　A tower can stand alone or be supported by adjacent buildings, or it may be a feature on top of a larger structure or building.

Please

Please is a word used in the English language to indicate politeness and respect while making a request. 　Derived from shortening the phrase "if you please" or "if it please(s) you", the term has taken on substantial nuance based on its intonation and the relationship between the persons between whom it is used. 　In much of the Western world, use of the word is considered proper etiquette, and parents and authority figures often imprint upon children the importance of saying "please" when asking for something from an early age, leading to the description of the term as "the magic word".

Freedom

Freedom is understood as either having the ability to act or change without constraint or to possess the power and resources to fulfill one's purposes unhindered. 　Freedom is often associated with liberty and autonomy in the sense of "giving oneself their own laws", and with having rights and the civil liberties with which to exercise them without undue interference by the state. 　Frequently discussed kinds of political freedom include freedom of assembly, freedom of association, freedom of choice, and freedom of speech. 　In one definition, something is "free" if it can change easily and is not constrained in its present state. 　In philosophy and religion, freedom is sometimes associated with free will, without undue or unjust constraints on that will, such as enslavement. 　It is an idea closely tied with the concept of negative liberty. 　Charles Taylor resolves one of the issues that separate "positive" and "negative" theories of freedom, as these were initially distinguished in Isaiah Berlin's seminal essay, "Two concepts of liberty". 　Taylor sees it as undeniable that there are two such families of conceptions of political freedom. 　Negative liberty is a concept that is often used in political philosophy. 　It is the idea that freedom means an ability to do what one wants, without external obstacles. 　This concept has been called too simplistic for discounting the importance of individual self-realization. 　Positive liberty is the ability to fulfill one's purposes.

Ball

A ball is a round object (usually spherical, but can sometimes be ovoid) with several uses. 　It is used in ball games, where the play of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, kicked or thrown by players. 　Balls can also be used for simpler activities, such as catch or juggling. 　Balls made from hard-wearing materials are used in engineering applications to provide very low friction bearings, known as ball bearings. 　Black-powder weapons use stone and metal balls as projectiles. 　Although many types of balls are today made from rubber, this form was unknown outside the Americas until after the voyages of Columbus. 　The Spanish were the first Europeans to see the bouncing rubber balls (although solid and not inflated) which were employed most notably in the Mesoamerican ballgame. 　Balls used in various sports in other parts of the world prior to Columbus were made from other materials such as animal bladders or skins, stuffed with various materials. 　As balls are one of the most familiar spherical objects to humans, the word "ball" may refer to or describe spherical or near-spherical objects. 　"Ball" is used metaphorically sometimes to denote something spherical or spheroid, e.g., armadillos and human beings curl up into a ball, making a fist into a ball.

Acting

Acting is an activity in which a story is told by means of its enactment by an actor or actress who adopts a character—in theatre, television, film, radio, or any other medium that makes use of the mimetic mode. 　Acting involves a broad range of skills, including a well-developed imagination, emotional facility, physical expressivity, vocal projection, clarity of speech, and the ability to interpret drama. 　Acting also demands an ability to employ dialects, accents, improvisation, observation and emulation, mime, and stage combat. 　Many actors train at length in specialist programs or colleges to develop these skills. 　The vast majority of professional actors have undergone extensive training. 　Actors and actresses will often have many instructors and teachers for a full range of training involving singing, scene-work, audition techniques, and acting for camera. 　Most early sources in the West that examine the art of acting (Greek: ὑπόκρισις, hypokrisis) discuss it as part of rhetoric.

Trial

In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information (in the form of evidence) in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or disputes. 　One form of tribunal is a court. 　The tribunal, which may occur before a judge, jury, or other designated trier of fact, aims to achieve a resolution to their dispute.

Beach

A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. 　The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, etc., or biological sources, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae. 　Sediments settle in different densities and structures, depending on the local wave action and weather, creating different textures, colors and gradients or layers of material. 　Though some beaches form on inland freshwater locations such as lakes and rivers, most beaches are in coastal areas where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments. 　Erosion and changing of beach geologies happens through natural processes, like wave action and extreme weather events. 　Where wind conditions are correct, beaches can be backed by coastal dunes which offer protection and regeneration for the beach. 　However, these natural forces have become more extreme due to climate change, permanently altering beaches at very rapid rates. 　Some estimates describe as much as 50 percent of the earth's sandy beaches disappearing by 2100 due to climate-change driven sea level rise. 　Sandy beaches occupy about one third of global coastlines. 　These beaches are popular for recreation, playing important economic and cultural roles—often driving local tourism industries. 　To support these uses, some beaches have man-made infrastructure, such as lifeguard posts, changing rooms, showers, shacks and bars. 　They may also have hospitality venues (such as resorts, camps, hotels, and restaurants) nearby or housing, both for permanent and seasonal residents. 　Human forces have significantly changed beaches globally: direct impacts include bad construction practices on dunes and coastlines, while indirect human impacts include water pollution, plastic pollution and coastal erosion from sea level rise and climate change. 　Some coastal management practices are designed to preserve or restore natural beach processes, while some beaches are actively restored through practices like beach nourishment. 　Wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed for tourism or recreation. 　Preserved beaches are important biomes with important roles in aquatic or marine biodiversity, such as for breeding grounds for sea turtles or nesting areas for seabirds or penguins. 　Preserved beaches and their associated dune are important for protection from extreme weather for inland ecosystems and human infrastructure.

Join (topology)

In topology, a field of mathematics, the join of two topological spaces A {\displaystyle A} and B {\displaystyle B} , often denoted by A ∗ B {\displaystyle A\ast B} or A ⋆ B {\displaystyle A\star B} , is a topological space formed by taking the disjoint union of the two spaces, and attaching line segments joining every point in A {\displaystyle A} to every point in B {\displaystyle B} .

Corps

Corps (/kɔːr/; plural corps /kɔːrz/; from French corps, from the Latin corpus "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. 　A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. 　The size of a corps varies greatly, but two to five divisions and anywhere from 40,000 to 80,000 are the numbers stated by the US Department of Defense. 　Within military terminology a corps may be: an operational formation, sometimes known as a field corps, which consists of two or more divisions, such as the Corps d'armée, later known as I Corps ("First Corps") of Napoleon I's Grande Armée); an administrative corps (or mustering) – that is a specialized branch of a military service (such as an artillery corps, a armoured corps, a medical corps, or a force of military police) or; in some cases, a distinct service within a national military (such as the United States Marine Corps). 　These usages often overlap. 　Corps may also be a generic term for a non-military organization, such as the US Peace Corps and European Solidarity Corps.

Spain

Coordinates: 40°N 4°W / 40°N 4°W / 40; -4 Spain (Spanish: España, [esˈpaɲa] (listen)), or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España), is a country primarily located in southwestern Europe with parts of territory in the Atlantic Ocean and across the Mediterranean Sea. 　The largest part of Spain is situated on the Iberian Peninsula; its territory also includes the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla in Africa. 　The country's mainland is bordered to the south by Gibraltar; to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea; to the north by France, Andorra and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. 　With an area of 505,990 km2 (195,360 sq mi), Spain is the second-largest country in the European Union (EU) and, with a population exceeding 47.4 million, the fourth-most populous EU member state. 　Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid; other major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, Málaga, Murcia, Palma de Mallorca, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Bilbao. 　Anatomically modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 42,000 years ago. 　The ancient Iberian and Celtic tribes, along with other local pre-Roman peoples, dwelled the territory maintaining contacts with foreign Mediterranean cultures. 　The Roman conquest and colonization of the peninsula (Hispania) ensued, bringing the Romanization of the population. 　The fall of the Western Roman Empire ushered in the migration into Iberia of tribes from Central and Northern Europe with the Visigoths as the dominant power in the peninsula by the fifth century. 　In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate, and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power centered in Córdoba. 　Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them León, Castile, Aragon, Portugal, and Navarre made an intermittent southward military expansion, known as Reconquista, repelling the Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. 　Jews and Muslims were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion, and eventually the converts were expelled through different royal decrees. 　The dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479, often considered the formation of Spain as a country, was followed by the annexation of Navarre and the incorporation of Portugal during the Iberian Union. 　A major country of the Age of Discovery, Spain began the colonization of the New World in 1492 developing one of the largest empires in history and underpinned the emergence of a global trading system primarily fuelled by precious metals. 　Centralisation and further state-building in mainland Spain ensued in the 18th century with the Bourbon reforms. 　In the 19th century the Crown saw the independence of its American colonies as a result of cumulative crises and political divisions after the Peninsular War. 　Political instability reached its peak in the 20th century with the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975. 　With the restoration of democracy under the Constitution of Spain and the entry into the European Union, the country experienced profound economic, political and social change. 　The so-called Siglo de Oro was a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise of the Spanish Empire under the Catholic Monarchs and the Spanish Habsburgs. 　As such, Spanish art, music, literature and cuisine have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas. 　As a reflection of its large cultural wealth, Spain has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites and is the world's second-most visited country. 　Its cultural influence extends over 570 million Hispanophones, making Spanish language the world's second-most spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. 　Spain is a highly developed country, a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with King Felipe VI as head of state. 　It is a high-income country and an advanced economy, with the world's sixteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixteenth-largest by PPP. 　Spain has the twelfth-highest life expectancy in the world. 　It ranks particularly high in healthcare quality, with its healthcare system considered to be one of the most efficient worldwide. 　It is a world leader in organ transplants and organ donation. 　Spain is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Council of Europe (CoE), de facto member of the G20, the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and many other international organisations.

Candidate

A candidate, or nominee, is the prospective recipient of an award or honor, or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position; for example: to be elected to an office — in this case a candidate selection procedure occurs. 　to receive membership in a group "Nomination" is part of the process of selecting a candidate for either election to an office by a political party, or the bestowing of an honor or award. 　This person is called a "nominee", though nominee often is used interchangeably with "candidate". 　A presumptive nominee is a person or organization believes that the nomination is inevitable or likely. 　The act of being a candidate in a race for either a party nomination or for electoral office is called a "candidacy". 　Presumptive candidate may be used to describe someone who is predicted to be a formal candidate.

Behavior

Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. 　These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment. 　It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. 　Taking a behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. 　This can be represented as a behavior vector.

Sitting

Sitting is a basic action and resting position in which the body weight is supported primarily by the bony ischial tuberosities with the buttocks in contact with the ground or a horizontal surface such as a chair seat, instead of by the lower limbs as in standing, squatting or kneeling. 　When sitting, the torso is more or less upright, although sometimes it can lean against other objects for a more relaxed posture. 　Sitting for much of the day may pose significant health risks, with one study suggesting people who sit regularly for prolonged periods may have higher mortality rates than those who do not. 　The average person sits down for 4.7 hours per day, according to a global review representing 47% of the global adult population. 　The form of kneeling where the buttocks sit back on the heels, for example as in the Seiza and Vajrasana postures, is also often interpreted as sitting.

Stadium

A stadium (PL: stadiums or stadia) is a place or venue for (mostly) outdoor sports, concerts, or other events and consists of a field or stage either partly or completely surrounded by a tiered structure designed to allow spectators to stand or sit and view the event. 　Pausanias noted that for about half a century the only event at the ancient Greek Olympic festival was the race that comprised one length of the stadion at Olympia, where the word "stadium" originated. 　Most of the stadiums with a capacity of at least 10,000 are used for association football. 　Other popular stadium sports include gridiron football, baseball, cricket, the various codes of rugby, field lacrosse, bandy, and bullfighting. 　Many large sports venues are also used for concerts.

Safe

A safe (also called a strongbox or coffer) is a secure lockable box used for securing valuable objects against theft or fire. 　A safe is usually a hollow cuboid or cylinder, with one face being removable or hinged to form a door. 　The body and door may be cast from metal (such as steel) or formed out of plastic through blow molding. 　Bank teller safes typically are secured to the counter, have a slit opening for dropping valuables into the safe without opening it, and a time-delay combination lock to foil thieves. 　One significant distinction between types of safes is whether the safe is secured to a wall or structure or if it can be moved around. 　A less secure version (only suitable for petty cash) is usually called a cash-box.

Joint

A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole. 　They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. 　Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. 　Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. 　The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. 　Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.

Joint (geology)

A joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in a layer or body of rock that lacks visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture ("Mode 1" Fracture). 　Although joints can occur singly, they most frequently appear as joint sets and systems. 　A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of their orientations, spacing, and physical properties. 　A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. 　The distinction between joints and faults hinges on the terms visible or measurable, a difference that depends on the scale of observation. 　Faults differ from joints in that they exhibit visible or measurable lateral movement between the opposite surfaces of the fracture ("Mode 2" and "Mode 3" Fractures). 　Thus a joint may be created by either strict movement of a rock layer or body perpendicular to the fracture or by varying degrees of lateral displacement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture that remains "invisible" at the scale of observation. 　Joints are among the most universal geologic structures, found in almost every exposure of rock. 　They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different tectonic environments. 　Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. 　The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, quartzite, and granite. 　Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. 　Joints infilled by precipitated minerals are called veins and joints filled by solidified magma are called dikes.

Corporation

A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law "born out of statute"; a legal person in legal context) and recognized as such in law for certain purposes.　: 10  Early incorporated entities were established by charter (i.e. by an ad hoc act granted by a monarch or passed by a parliament or legislature). 　Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. 　Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered based on two aspects: by whether they can issue stock, or by whether they are formed to make a profit. 　Depending on the number of owners, a corporation can be classified as aggregate (the subject of this article) or sole (a legal entity consisting of a single incorporated office occupied by a single natural person). 　One of the most attractive early advantages business corporations offered to their investors, compared to earlier business entities like sole proprietorships and joint partnerships, was limited liability.　[clarification needed] Limited liability means that a passive shareholder in a corporation will not be personally liable either for contractually agreed obligations of the corporation, or for torts (involuntary harms) committed by the corporation against a third party. 　Limited liability in contract is uncontroversial because the parties to the contract could have agreed to it and could agree to waive it by contract. 　However, limited liability in tort remains controversial because third parties do not agree to waive the right to pursue shareholders. 　There is significant evidence that limited liability in tort may lead to excessive corporate risk taking and more harm by corporations to third parties. 　Where local law distinguishes corporations by their ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as stock corporations; one type of investment in the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as stockholders or shareholders. 　Corporations not allowed to issue stock are referred to as non-stock corporations; i.e. those who are considered the owners of a non-stock corporation are persons (or other entities) who have obtained membership in the corporation and are referred to as a member of the corporation. 　Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for-profit are referred to as for-profit and not-for-profit corporations, respectively. 　There is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for-profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are nearly always non-stock as well. 　A for-profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, but some for-profit corporations may choose to be non-stock. 　To simplify the explanation, whenever "stockholder" or "shareholder" is used in the rest of this article to refer to a stock corporation, it is presumed to mean the same as "member" for a non-profit corporation or for a profit, non-stock corporation. 　Registered corporations have legal personality recognized by local authorities and their shares are owned by shareholders whose liability is generally limited to their investment. 　Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation; shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity. 　In most circumstances, a shareholder may also serve as a director or officer of a corporation. 　Countries with co-determination employ the practice of workers of an enterprise having the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company. 　In American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. 　In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the term company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. 　In American English, the word company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. 　Late in the 19th century, a new form of the company having the limited liability protections of a corporation, and the more favorable tax treatment of either a sole proprietorship or partnership was developed. 　While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock. 　In Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. 　In the last quarter of the 20th century, this new form of non-corporate organization became available in the United States and other countries, and was known as the limited liability company or LLC. 　Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations (even though they have many of the same features), they will not be discussed in this article.

Parish

A parish is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. 　A parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a priest, often termed a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates, and who operates from a parish church. 　Historically, a parish often covered the same geographical area as a manor. 　Its association with the parish church remains paramount. 　By extension the term parish refers not only to the territorial entity but to the people of its community or congregation as well as to church property within it. 　In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest ex-officio, vested in him on his institution to that parish.