Motion

In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position with respect to time. 　Motion is mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed and frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame with change in time. 　The branch of physics describing the motion of objects without reference to its cause is called kinematics, while the branch studying forces and their effect on motion is called dynamics. 　If an object is not changing relative to a given frame of reference, the object is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have a constant or time-invariant position with reference to its surroundings. 　Modern physics holds that, as there is no absolute frame of reference, Newton's concept of absolute motion cannot be determined. 　As such, everything in the universe can be considered to be in motion.　: 20–21  Motion applies to various physical systems: objects, bodies, matter particles, matter fields, radiation, radiation fields, radiation particles, curvature, and space-time. 　One can also speak on the motion of images, shapes, and boundaries. 　In general, the term motion signifies a continuous change in the positions or configuration of a physical system in space. 　For example, one can talk about the motion of a wave or the motion of a quantum particle, where the configuration consists of probabilities of the wave or particle occupying specific positions.

Gun (Chinese mythology)

Gun (Chinese: 鯀; pinyin: Gǔn; Wade–Giles: Kun3, lit. "big fish"), also known as Count of Chong (Chinese: 崇伯鯀; pinyin: Chóngbó Gǔn; Wade–Giles: Ch‘ung2-po2 Kun3), was a figure in Chinese mythology, sometimes noted as the father of Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia dynasty. 　Gun was appointed to the task of controlling the Great Flood by Emperor Yao on the advice of the Four Mountains. 　Gun used dykes to try to stop the flooding but the dykes collapsed, killing many people.

Gun

A gun is a ranged weapon designed to use a shooting tube (gun barrel) to launch projectiles. 　The projectiles are typically solid, but can also be pressurized liquid (e.g. in water guns/cannons, spray guns for painting or pressure washing, projected water disruptors, and technically also flamethrowers), gas (e.g. light-gas gun) or even charged particles (e.g. plasma gun). 　Solid projectiles may be free-flying (as with bullets and artillery shells) or tethered (as with Taser guns, spearguns and harpoon guns). 　A large-caliber gun is also called a cannon. 　The means of projectile propulsion vary according to designs, but are traditionally effected pneumatically by a high gas pressure contained within the barrel tube, produced either through the rapid exothermic combustion of propellants (as with firearms), or by mechanical compression (as with air guns). 　The high-pressure gas is introduced behind the projectile, pushing and accelerating it down the length of the tube, imparting sufficient launch velocity to sustain its further travel towards the target once the propelling gas ceases acting upon it after it exits the muzzle. 　Alternatively, new-concept linear motor weapons may employ an electromagnetic field to achieve acceleration, in which case the barrel may be substituted by guide rails (as in railguns) or wrapped with magnetic coils (as in coilguns). 　The first devices identified as guns or proto-guns appeared in China from around AD 1000. 　By the end of the 13th century, they had become "true guns," metal barrel firearms that fired single projectiles which occluded the barrel. 　Gunpowder and gun technology spread throughout Eurasia during the 14th century.

Multi

Look up multi or multi- in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Multi is a shortened form of "multiple". 　It may refer to: Alternate character, in online gaming Multi two diamonds, a contract bridge convention Multirhyme, a synonym for feminine rhyme used in hip hop music Multi (To Heart), a character from the visual novel and anime series To Heart Multi-touch display

Algorithm

In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm (/ˈælɡərɪðəm/ (listen)) is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. 　Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing. 　More advanced algorithms can use conditionals to divert the code execution through various routes (referred to as automated decision-making) and deduce valid inferences (referred to as automated reasoning), achieving automation eventually. 　Using human characteristics as descriptors of machines in metaphorical ways was already practiced by Alan Turing with terms such as "memory", "search" and "stimulus". 　In contrast, a heuristic is an approach to problem solving that may not be fully specified or may not guarantee correct or optimal results, especially in problem domains where there is no well-defined correct or optimal result. 　As an effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time, and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. 　Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty), the instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output" and terminating at a final ending state. 　The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.

Male

Male (symbol: ♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete (sex cell) known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilization. 　A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, but some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually. 　Most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs. 　Not all species share a common sex-determination system. 　In most animals, including humans, sex is determined genetically; however, species such as Cymothoa exigua change sex depending on the number of females present in the vicinity.　[better source needed] In humans, the word male can also be used to refer to gender in the social sense of gender role or gender identity.

Fear

Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. 　Fear causes physiological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. 　Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. 　The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response), which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a freeze response or paralysis. 　In humans and other animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. 　Thus, fear is judged as rational or appropriate and irrational or inappropriate. 　An irrational fear is called a phobia. 　Fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. 　The fear response serves survival by engendering appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution. 　Sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals' fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel.　[page needed] Fear is sometimes incorrectly considered the opposite of courage. 　For the reason that courage is a willingness to face adversity, fear is an example of a condition that makes the exercise of courage possible.

Fear (anthology)

Fear: 13 Stories of Suspense and Horror is a 2010 horror anthology edited by R. L. Stine. 　Thirteen different authors contributed stories to the anthology, including Meg Cabot, Heather Graham, F. Paul Wilson, and Stine himself. 　Stine began writing the anthology after the International Thriller Writers asked him to write a book with several stories. 　Critical reception for the short story collection was positive, with one reviewer stating the stories were highly suspenseful, inventive, easy to understand, and fast-paced.

Status

Look up status in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Status (Latin plural: statūs), is a state, condition, or situation, and may refer to: Status (law) City status Legal status, in law Political status, in international law Small entity status, in patent law Status conference Status crime Marital status Observer status, in international organizations Senior status Social status, in sociology Achieved status Ascribed status Master status Socioeconomic status Sociometric status Status attainment Status offense Status shift Status brand, in marketing Status constructus, a noun form Status match, in frequent-flyer loyalty programs Status quo Status symbol

Commander

Commander (commonly abbreviated as Cmdr.) is a common naval officer rank as well as a job title or "billet" in many armies. 　Commander is also used as a rank or title in other formal organizations, including several police forces. 　In several countries this naval rank is termed frigate captain. 　Commander is also a generic term for an officer commanding any armed forces unit, for example "platoon commander", "brigade commander" and "squadron commander". 　In the police, terms such as "borough commander" and "incident commander" are used.

Choice

A choice is the range of different things from which a being can choose. 　The arrival at a choice may incorporate motivators and models. 　For example, a traveler might choose a route for a journey based on the preference of arriving at a given destination at a specified time. 　The preferred (and therefore chosen) route can then account for information such as the length of each of the possible routes, the amount of fuel in the vehicle, traffic conditions, etc. 　Simple choices might include what to eat for dinner or what to wear on a Saturday morning – choices that have relatively low-impact on the chooser's life overall. 　More complex choices might involve (for example) what candidate to vote for in an election, what profession to pursue, a life partner, etc. 　– choices based on multiple influences and having larger ramifications. 　Freedom of choice is generally cherished, whereas a severely limited or artificially restricted choice can lead to discomfort with choosing, and possibly an unsatisfactory outcome. 　In contrast, a choice with excessively numerous options may lead to confusion, reduced satisfaction, regret of the alternatives not taken, and indifference in an unstructured existence;: 63  and the illusion that choosing an object or a course, necessarily leads to the control of that object or course, can cause psychological problems.

Watch

A watch is a portable timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. 　It is designed to keep a consistent movement despite the motions caused by the person's activities. 　A wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet, including metal bands, leather straps, or any other kind of bracelet. 　A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, often attached to a chain. 　Watches were developed in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. 　During most of its history the watch was a mechanical device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring, and keeping time with an oscillating balance wheel. 　These are called mechanical watches. 　In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery and kept time with a vibrating quartz crystal. 　By the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. 　Historically, this is called the quartz revolution (also known as quartz crisis in Switzerland). 　Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist. 　They generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only a small subset of the smartwatch's facilities. 　In general, modern watches often display the day, date, month, and year. 　For mechanical watches, various extra features called "complications," such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. 　Most electronic quartz watches, on the other hand, include time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions. 　Furthermore, some modern watches (like smartwatches) even incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, and some of them use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. 　Most watches that are used mainly for timekeeping have quartz movements. 　However, expensive collectible watches, valued more for their elaborate craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, and glamorous design than for simple timekeeping, often have traditional mechanical movements, despite being less accurate and more expensive than their electronic counterparts. 　As of 2018, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction was the Patek Philippe Henry Graves Supercomplication, the world's most complicated mechanical watch until 1989, fetching US$24 million (CHF 23,237,000) in Geneva on 11 November 2014. 　As of December 2019, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction (and wristwatch) was the Patek Philippe Grandmaster Chime Ref. 6300A-010, fetching US$31.19 million (CHF 31,000,000) in Geneva on 9 November 2019.

Oil

This article contains special characters. 　Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. 　An oil is any nonpolar chemical substance that is composed primarily of hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic (does not mix with water) & lipophilic (mixes with other oils). 　Oils are usually flammable and surface active. 　Most oils are unsaturated lipids that are liquid at room temperature. 　The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. 　Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile. 　They are used for food (e.g., olive oil), fuel (e.g., heating oil), medical purposes (e.g., mineral oil), lubrication (e.g. motor oil), and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. 　Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents.

Wind

Wind is the natural movement of air or other gases relative to a planet's surface. 　Winds occur on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth. 　The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet (Coriolis effect). 　Within the tropics and subtropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. 　In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds; in areas that have variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes can prevail. 　Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed and direction, the forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. 　Winds have various aspects: velocity (wind speed); the density of the gas involved; energy content, or wind energy. 　In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction from which the wind is blowing. 　The convention for directions refer to where the wind comes from; therefore, a 'western' or 'westerly' wind blows from the west to the east, a 'northern' wind blows south, and so on. 　This is sometimes counter-intuitive. 　Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts. 　Strong winds of intermediate duration (around one minute) are termed squalls. 　Long-duration winds have various names associated with their average strength, such as breeze, gale, storm, and hurricane. 　In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. 　The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn. 　In human civilization, the concept of wind has been explored in mythology, influenced the events of history, expanded the range of transport and warfare, and provided a power source for mechanical work, electricity, and recreation. 　Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth's oceans. 　Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption. 　Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. 　When winds become strong, trees and human-made structures can be damaged or destroyed. 　Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, for example loess, and by erosion. 　Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions. 　Wind also affects the spread of wildfires. 　Winds can disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect and bird populations. 　When combined with cold temperatures, the wind has a negative impact on livestock. 　Wind affects animals' food stores, as well as their hunting and defensive strategies.

Box

A box (plural: boxes) is a container used for the storage or transportation of its contents. 　Most boxes have flat, parallel, rectangular sides. 　Boxes can be very small (like a matchbox) or very large (like a shipping box for furniture), and can be used for a variety of purposes from functional to decorative. 　Boxes may be made of a variety of materials, both durable, such as wood and metal; and non-durable, such as corrugated fiberboard and paperboard. 　Corrugated metal boxes are commonly used as shipping containers. 　Most commonly, boxes have flat, parallel, rectangular sides, making them rectangular prisms; but boxes may also have other shapes. 　Rectangular prisms are often referred to colloquially as "boxes." 　Boxes may be closed and shut with flaps, doors, or a separate lid. 　They can be secured shut with adhesives, tapes, or more decorative or elaborately functional mechanisms, such as a catch, clasp or lock.

Ability

Abilities are powers an agent has to perform various actions. 　They include common abilities, like walking, and rare abilities, like performing a double backflip. 　Abilities are intelligent powers: they are guided by the person's intention and executing them successfully results in an action, which is not true for all types of powers. 　They are closely related to but not identical with various other concepts, such as disposition, know-how, aptitude, talent, potential, and skill. 　Theories of ability aim to articulate the nature of abilities. 　Traditionally, the conditional analysis has been the most popular approach. 　According to it, having an ability means one would perform the action in question if one tried to do so. 　On this view, Michael Phelps has the ability to swim 200 meters in under 2 minutes because he would do so if he tried to. 　This approach has been criticized in various ways. 　Some counterexamples involve cases in which the agent is physically able to do something but unable to try, due to a strong aversion. 　In order to avoid these and other counterexamples, various alternative approaches have been suggested. 　Modal theories of ability, for example, focus on what is possible for the agent to do. 　Other suggestions include defining abilities in terms of dispositions and potentials. 　An important distinction among abilities is between general abilities and specific abilities. 　General abilities are abilities possessed by an agent independent of their situation while specific abilities concern what an agent can do in a specific situation. 　So while an expert piano player always has the general ability to play various piano pieces, they lack the corresponding specific ability in a situation where no piano is present. 　Another distinction concerns the question of whether successfully performing an action by accident counts as having the corresponding ability. 　In this sense, an amateur hacker may have the effective ability to hack his boss's email account, because they may be lucky and guess the password correctly, but not the corresponding transparent ability, since they are unable to reliably do so. 　The concept of abilities and how they are to be understood is relevant for various related fields. 　Free will, for example, is often understood as the ability to do otherwise. 　The debate between compatibilism and incompatibilism concerns the question whether this ability can exist in a world governed by deterministic laws of nature. 　Autonomy is a closely related concept, which can be defined as the ability of individual or collective agents to govern themselves. 　Whether an agent has the ability to perform a certain action is important for whether they have a moral obligation to perform this action. 　If they possess it, they may be morally responsible for performing it or for failing to do so. 　Like in the free will debate, it is also relevant whether they had the ability to do otherwise. 　A prominent theory of concepts and concept possession understands these terms in relation to abilities. 　According to it, it is required that the agent possess both the ability to discriminate between positive and negative cases and the ability to draw inferences to related concepts.

Guitar

The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that typically has six strings. 　It is usually held flat against the player's body and played by strumming or plucking the strings with the dominant hand, while simultaneously pressing selected strings against frets with the fingers of the opposite hand. 　A plectrum or individual finger picks may also be used to strike the strings. 　The sound of the guitar is projected either acoustically, by means of a resonant chamber on the instrument, or amplified by an electronic pickup and an amplifier. 　The guitar is classified as a chordophone – meaning the sound is produced by a vibrating string stretched between two fixed points. 　Historically, a guitar was constructed from wood with its strings made of catgut. 　Steel guitar strings were introduced near the end of the nineteenth century in the United States; nylon strings came in the 1940s. 　The guitar's ancestors include the gittern, the vihuela, the four-course Renaissance guitar, and the five-course baroque guitar, all of which contributed to the development of the modern six-string instrument. 　There are three main types of modern guitar: the classical guitar (Spanish guitar/nylon-string guitar); the steel-string acoustic guitar or electric guitar; and the Hawaiian guitar (played across the player's lap). 　Traditional acoustic guitars include the flat top guitar (typically with a large sound hole) or an archtop guitar, which is sometimes called a "jazz guitar". 　The tone of an acoustic guitar is produced by the strings' vibration, amplified by the hollow body of the guitar, which acts as a resonating chamber. 　The classical Spanish guitar is often played as a solo instrument using a comprehensive fingerstyle technique where each string is plucked individually by the player's fingers, as opposed to being strummed. 　The term "finger-picking" can also refer to a specific tradition of folk, blues, bluegrass, and country guitar playing in the United States. 　Electric guitars, first patented in 1937, use a pickup and amplifier that made the instrument loud enough to be heard, but also enabled manufacturing guitars with a solid block of wood needing no resonant chamber. 　A wide array of electronic effects units became possible including reverb and distortion (or "overdrive"). 　Solid-body guitars began to dominate the guitar market during the 1960s and 1970s; they are less prone to unwanted acoustic feedback. 　As with acoustic guitars, there are a number of types of electric guitars, including hollowbody guitars, archtop guitars (used in jazz guitar, blues and rockabilly) and solid-body guitars, which are widely used in rock music. 　The loud, amplified sound and sonic power of the electric guitar played through a guitar amp has played a key role in the development of blues and rock music, both as an accompaniment instrument (playing riffs and chords) and performing guitar solos, and in many rock subgenres, notably heavy metal music and punk rock. 　The electric guitar has had a major influence on popular culture. 　The guitar is used in a wide variety of musical genres worldwide. 　It is recognized as a primary instrument in genres such as blues, bluegrass, country, flamenco, folk, jazz, jota, ska, mariachi, metal, punk, funk, reggae, rock, grunge, soul, acoustic music, disco, new wave, new age, adult contemporary music, and pop, occasionally used as a sample in hip-hop, dubstep, or trap music.

Vice

A vice is a practice, behaviour, or habit generally considered immoral, sinful, criminal, rude, taboo, depraved, degrading, deviant or perverted in the associated society. 　In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a negative character trait, a defect, an infirmity, or a bad or unhealthy habit. 　Vices are usually associated with a transgression in a person's character or temperament rather than their morality. 　Synonyms for vice include fault, sin, depravity, iniquity, wickedness, and corruption. 　The antonym of vice is virtue.

Respect

Respect, also called esteem, is a positive feeling or action shown towards someone or something considered important or held in high esteem or regard. 　It conveys a sense of admiration for good or valuable qualities. 　It is also the process of honoring someone by exhibiting care, concern, or consideration for their needs or feelings. 　Some people may earn the respect of individuals by assisting others or by playing important social roles. 　In many cultures, individuals are considered to be worthy of respect until they prove otherwise. 　Courtesies that show respect may include simple words and phrases like "Thank you" in the West or "Namaste" in the Indian subcontinent, or simple physical signs like a slight bow, a smile, direct eye contact, or a simple handshake; however, those acts may have very different interpretations, depending on the cultural context.

Older

Look up older in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Older is the comparative form of "old". 　It may also refer to: Music: Older (album), the third studio album from George Michael (released in 1996) "Older" 　(George Michael song) 　"Older", a song on the 1999 album Long Tall Weekend by They Might Be Giants “Older” a song by 5 Seconds Of Summer from 5SOS5 "Older" (Royseven song), Royseven's 2006 debut single "Older" (Ben Platt song), a song by Ben Platt from his 2019 album Sing to Me Instead, also covered by Cliff Richard in his 2020 album Music... 　The Air That I Breathe "Older", a song on the 2007 album Coco by Colbie Caillat People: Airin Older, American rock band Sugarcult's bass guitarist and supporting vocalist Charles Older (1917-2006), American World War II flying ace and judge in the Charles Manson trial Daniel José Older, American fantasy writer and young adult fiction writer Fremont Older (1856–1935), American newspaperman and editor

Produce

Produce is a generalized term for many farm-produced crops, including fruits and vegetables (grains, oats, etc. are also sometimes considered produce). 　More specifically, the term produce often implies that the products are fresh and generally in the same state as where and when they were harvested.　[citation needed] In supermarkets, the term is also used to refer to the section of the store where fruit and vegetables are kept. 　Produce is the main product sold by greengrocers (UK, Australia) and farmers' markets. 　The term is widely and commonly used in the U.S. and Canada, but is not typically used outside the agricultural sector in other English-speaking countries. 　In parts of the world, including the U.S., produce is marked with small stickers bearing price look-up codes. 　These four- or five-digit codes are a standardized system intended to aid checkout and inventory control at places where produce is sold.

Bishop

A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. 　In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. 　The role or office of bishop is called episcopacy. 　Organizationally, several Christian denominations utilize ecclesiastical structures that call for the position of bishops, while other denominations have dispensed with this office, seeing it as a symbol of power. 　Bishops have also exercised political authority. 　Traditionally, bishops claim apostolic succession, a direct historical lineage dating back to the original Twelve Apostles or Saint Paul. 　The bishops are by doctrine understood as those who possess the full priesthood given by Jesus Christ, and therefore may ordain other clergy, including other bishops. 　A person ordained as a deacon, priest (i.e. presbyter), and then bishop is understood to hold the fullness of the ministerial priesthood, given responsibility by Christ to govern, teach and sanctify the Body of Christ (the Church). 　Priests, deacons and lay ministers co-operate and assist their bishops in pastoral ministry. 　Some Pentecostal and other Protestant denominations have bishops who oversee congregations, though they do not claim apostolic succession.

Judge

A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. 　A judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the barristers or solicitors of the case, assesses the credibility and arguments of the parties, and then issues a ruling in the case based on their interpretation of the law and their own personal judgment. 　A judge is expected to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. 　The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. 　In some jurisdictions, the judge's powers may be shared with a jury. 　In inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. 　The presiding judge ensures that all court proceedings are lawful and orderly.

Protection

Protection is any measure taken to guard a thing against damage caused by outside forces. 　Protection can be provided to physical objects, including organisms, to systems, and to intangible things like civil and political rights. 　Although the mechanisms for providing protection vary widely, the basic meaning of the term remains the same. 　This is illustrated by an explanation found in a manual on electrical wiring: The meaning of the word protection, as used in the electrical industry, is no different to that in everyday use. 　People protect themselves against personal or financial loss by means of insurance and from injury or discomfort by the use of protective clothing. 　They further protect their property by the installation of security measures such as locks and/or alarm systems. 　Some kind of protection is a characteristic of all life, as living things have evolved at least some protective mechanisms to counter damaging environmental phenomena, such as ultraviolet light. 　Biological membranes such as bark on trees and skin on animals offer protection from various threats, with skin playing a key role in protecting organisms against pathogens and excessive water loss. 　Additional structures like scales and hair offer further protection from the elements and from predators, with some animals having features such as spines or camouflage serving exclusively as anti-predator adaptations. 　Many animals supplement the protection afforded by their physiology by burrowing or otherwise adopting habitats or behaviors that insulate them from potential sources of harm. 　Humans originally began wearing clothing and building shelters in prehistoric times for protection from the elements. 　Both humans and animals are also often concerned with the protection of others, with adult animals being particularly inclined to seek to protect their young from elements of nature and from predators. 　In the human sphere of activity, the concept of protection has been extended to nonliving objects, including technological systems such as computers, and to intangible things such as intellectual property, beliefs, and economic systems. 　Humans seek to protect locations of historical and cultural significance through historic preservation efforts, and are also concerned with protecting the environment from damage caused by human activity, and with protecting the Earth as a whole from potentially harmful objects from space.