Valley

A valley is an elongated low area often running between hills or mountains, which will typically contain a river or stream running from one end to the other. 　Most valleys are formed by erosion of the land surface by rivers or streams over a very long period. 　Some valleys are formed through erosion by glacial ice. 　These glaciers may remain present in valleys in high mountains or polar areas. 　At lower latitudes and altitudes, these glacially formed valleys may have been created or enlarged during ice ages but now are ice-free and occupied by streams or rivers. 　In desert areas, valleys may be entirely dry or carry a watercourse only rarely. 　In areas of limestone bedrock, dry valleys may also result from drainage now taking place underground rather than at the surface. 　Rift valleys arise principally from earth movements, rather than erosion. 　Many different types of valleys are described by geographers, using terms that may be global in use or else applied only locally.

Distance

Distance is a numerical or occasionally qualitative measurement of how far apart objects or points are. 　In physics or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length or an estimation based on other criteria (e.g. "two counties over"). 　Since spatial cognition is a rich source of conceptual metaphors in human thought, the term is also frequently used metaphorically to mean a measurement of the amount of difference between two similar objects (such as statistical distance between probability distributions or edit distance between strings of text) or a degree of separation (as exemplified by distance between people in a social network). 　Most such notions of distance, both physical and metaphorical, are formalized in mathematics using the notion of a metric space. 　In the social sciences, distance can refer to a qualitative measurement of separation, such as social distance or psychological distance.

Industry (archaeology)

Not to be confused with industrial archaeology, the archaeology of (modern) industrial sites. 　In the archaeology of the Stone Age, an industry or technocomplex is a typological classification of stone tools. 　An industry consists of a number of lithic assemblages, typically including a range of different types of tools, that are grouped together on the basis of shared technological or morphological characteristics. 　For example, the Acheulean industry includes hand-axes, cleavers, scrapers and other tools with different forms, but which were all manufactured by the symmetrical reduction of a bifacial core producing large flakes. 　Industries are usually named after a type site where these characteristics were first observed (e.g. the Mousterian industry is named after the site of Le Moustier). 　By contrast, Neolithic axeheads from the Langdale axe industry were recognised as a type well before the centre at Great Langdale was identified by finds of debitage and other remains of the production, and confirmed by petrography (geological analysis). 　The stone was quarried and rough axe heads were produced there, to be more finely worked and polished elsewhere. 　As a taxonomic classification of artefacts, industries rank higher than archaeological cultures. 　Cultures are usually defined from a range of different artefact types and are thought to be related to a distinct cultural tradition. 　By contrast, industries are defined by basic elements of lithic production which may have been used by many unrelated human groups over tens or even hundred thousands of years, and over very wide geographical ranges. 　Sites producing tools from the Acheulean industry stretch from France to China, as well as Africa. 　Consequently, shifts between lithic industries are thought to reflect major milestones in human evolution, such as changes in cognitive ability or even the replacement of one human species by another. 　However, findings from ancient DNA studies describe several changes and periods of stasis in European populations that are not strongly reflected in the current cultural taxonomic frameworks. 　Therefore, artefacts from a single industry may come from a number of different cultures.

Individual

An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. 　Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of being an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of being a person unique from other people and possessing one's own needs or goals, rights and responsibilities. 　The concept of an individual features in diverse fields, including biology, law, and philosophy.

Review

A review is an evaluation of a publication, product, service, or company or a critical take on current affairs in literature, politics or culture. 　In addition to a critical evaluation, the review's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit. 　A compilation of reviews may itself be called a review. 　Reviews can apply to a movie (a movie review), video game (video game review), musical composition (music review of a composition or recording), book (book review); a piece of hardware like a car, home appliance, or computer; or software such as business software, sales software; or an event or performance, such as a live music concert, play, musical theater show, dance show or art exhibition In the cultural sphere, The New York Review of Books, for instance, is a collection of essays on literature, culture, and current affairs. 　National Review, founded by William F. Buckley Jr., is a conservative magazine, and Monthly Review is a long-running socialist periodical.

Clear (Scientology)

In Dianetics and Scientology, Clear is a status afforded to followers by the Scientology organization, or by other Scientologists, after they complete certain activities. 　It is one of the major ostensible "states" practitioners strive to reach on their way up what the Scientologists call the Bridge to Total Freedom. 　Scientology followers are given the status of Clear when a person is deemed to be free of the influence of engrams – supposed unwanted emotions or painful traumas which Scientology claims are not readily available to the conscious mind. 　Scientologists believe that human beings accumulate anxieties, psychosomatic illnesses, and aberration due to receiving engrams throughout their current or past lives, and that by applying Dianetics, every single person can obtain the status of Clear. 　A Clear is defined by the Church of Scientology as a person who no longer has a "reactive mind" (a pseudoscientific subdivision of the mind), and is therefore free from negative effects purported to be produced by the "reactive mind". 　A Clear is said to be "at cause over" (that is, in control of) their "mental energy" (their thoughts), and able to think clearly even when faced with the very situations that in earlier times caused them difficulty. 　The next level of spiritual development is that of an Operating Thetan. 　A person who has not reached a state of Clear is called a "pre-clear." 　Dianetics claims that a person's awareness is influenced by the stimulus-response nature of the "reactive mind". 　Achieving the state of Clear means a person has supposedly overcome the "reactive mind" and is in complete control of their analytical mind. 　According to Hubbard: "A Clear is a being who no longer has his own reactive mind, and therefore suffers none of the ill effects the reactive mind can cause. The Clear has no engrams which, when restimulated, throw out the correctness of his computations by entering hidden and false data." 　Sociologist Roy Wallis noted, “Being Clear meant being able to do all those things which one could currently not do, and to which one aspired so desperately.” 　It is estimated that the cost of reaching the Clear state in Scientology is $128,000.

Saint

In religious belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness, likeness, or closeness to God. 　However, the use of the term saint depends on the context and denomination. 　In Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox, and Lutheran doctrine, all of their faithful deceased in Heaven are considered to be saints, but some are considered worthy of greater honor or emulation. 　Official ecclesiastical recognition, and consequently a public cult of veneration, is conferred on some denominational saints through the process of canonization in the Catholic Church or glorification in the Eastern Orthodox Church after their approval. 　While the English word saint originated in Christianity, historians of religion tend to use the appellation "in a more general way to refer to the state of special holiness that many religions attribute to certain people", referring to the Jewish tzadik, the Islamic walī, the Hindu rishi or Sikh Bhagat and guru, the Shintoist kami, the Taoist shengren, and the Buddhist arhat or bodhisattva also as saints. 　Depending on the religion, saints are recognized either by official ecclesiastical declaration, as in the Catholic faith, or by popular acclamation (see folk saint).

Tournament

A tournament is a competition involving at least three competitors, all participating in a sport or game. 　More specifically, the term may be used in either of two overlapping senses: One or more competitions held at a single venue and concentrated into a relatively short time interval. 　A competition involving a number of matches, each involving a subset of the competitors, with the overall tournament winner determined based on the combined results of these individual matches. 　These are common in those sports and games where each match must involve a small number of competitors: often precisely two, as in most team sports, racket sports and combat sports, many card games and board games, and many forms of competitive debating. 　Such tournaments allow large numbers to compete against each other in spite of the restriction on numbers in a single match. 　These two senses are distinct. 　All golf tournaments meet the first definition, but while match play tournaments meet the second, stroke play tournaments do not, since there are no distinct matches within the tournament. 　In contrast, association football leagues like the Premier League are tournaments in the second sense, but not the first, having matches spread across many venues over a period of up to a season. 　Many tournaments meet both definitions; for example, the Wimbledon tennis championship. 　Tournaments "are temporally demarcated events, participation in which confers levels of status and prestige amongst all participating members". 　A tournament-match (or tie or fixture or heat) may involve multiple game-matches (or rubbers or legs) between the competitors. 　For example, in the Davis Cup tennis tournament, a tie between two nations involves five rubbers between the nations' players. 　The team that wins the most rubbers wins the tie. 　In the later rounds of UEFA Champions League, each fixture is played over two legs. 　The scores of each leg are added, and the team with the higher aggregate score wins the fixture, with a penalty shoot-out used if the scores are level after both matches conclude.

Africa

Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. 　At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area. 　With 1.4 billion people as of 2021, it accounts for about 18% of the world's human population. 　Africa's population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. 　Despite a wide range of natural resources, Africa is the least wealthy continent per capita and second-least wealthy by total wealth, behind Oceania. 　Scholars have attributed this to different factors including geography, climate, tribalism, colonialism, the Cold War, neocolonialism, lack of democracy, and corruption. 　Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context. 　The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. 　The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. 　It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states, eight territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. 　Algeria is Africa's largest country by area, and Nigeria is its largest by population. 　African nations cooperate through the establishment of the African Union, which is headquartered in Addis Ababa. 　Africa straddles the equator and the prime meridian. 　It is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to the southern temperate zones. 　The majority of the continent and its countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. 　Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of Western Sahara, Algeria, Libya and Egypt, the northern tip of Mauritania, and the entire territories of Morocco, Ceuta, Melilla, and Tunisia which in turn are located above the tropic of Cancer, in the northern temperate zone. 　In the other extreme of the continent, southern Namibia, southern Botswana, great parts of South Africa, the entire territories of Lesotho and Eswatini and the southern tips of Mozambique and Madagascar are located below the tropic of Capricorn, in the southern temperate zone. 　Africa is highly biodiverse; it is the continent with the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. 　However, Africa also is heavily affected by a wide range of environmental issues, including desertification, deforestation, water scarcity and pollution. 　These entrenched environmental concerns are expected to worsen as climate change impacts Africa. 　The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has identified Africa as the continent most vulnerable to climate change. 　The history of Africa is long, complex, and has often been under-appreciated by the global historical community. 　Africa, particularly Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes). 　The earliest hominids and their ancestors have been dated to around 7 million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster—the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) remains, found in Ethiopia, South Africa, and Morocco, date to circa 233,000, 259,000, and 300,000 years ago respectively, and Homo sapiens is believed to have originated in Africa around 350,000–260,000 years ago. 　Africa is also considered by anthropologists to be the most genetically diverse continent as a result of being the longest inhabited. 　Early human civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt and Carthage emerged in North Africa. 　Following a subsequent long and complex history of civilizations, migration and trade, Africa hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. 　The last 400 years have witnessed an increasing European influence on the continent. 　Starting in the 16th century, this was driven by trade, including the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which created large African diaspora populations in the Americas. 　From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, European nations colonized almost all of Africa, reaching a point when only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent polities. 　Most present states in Africa emerged from a process of decolonisation following World War II.

Senior

Look up Senior or senior in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Senior (shortened as Sr.) means "the elder" in Latin and is often used as a suffix for the elder of two or more people in the same family with the same given name, usually a parent or grandparent. 　It may also refer to: Senior (name), a surname or given name Senior (education), a student in the final year of high school, college or university Senior citizen, a common designation for a person 65 and older in UK and US English Senior (athletics), an age athletics category Senior status, form of semi-retirement for United States federal judges Senior debt, a form of corporate finance Senior producer, a title given usually to the second most senior person of a film of television production.

Standing

Standing, also referred to as orthostasis, is a position in which the body is held in an erect ("orthostatic") position and supported only by the feet. 　Although seemingly static, the body rocks slightly back and forth from the ankle in the sagittal plane. 　The sagittal plane bisects the body into right and left sides. 　The sway of quiet standing is often likened to the motion of an inverted pendulum. 　Standing at attention is a military standing posture, as is stand at ease, but these terms are also used in military-style organisations and in some professions which involve standing, such as modeling. 　At ease refers to the classic military position of standing with legs slightly apart, not in as formal or regimented a pose as standing at attention. 　In modeling, model at ease refers to the model standing with one leg straight, with the majority of the weight on it, and the other leg tucked over and slightly around.

Y

Y, or y, is the twenty-fifth and penultimate letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. 　According to some authorities, it is the sixth (or seventh if including W) vowel letter of the English alphabet. 　In the English writing system, it mostly represents a vowel and seldom a consonant, and in other orthographies it may represent a vowel or a consonant. 　Its name in English is wye (pronounced /ˈwaɪ/), plural wyes.

Policy

Policy is a deliberate system of guidelines to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. 　A policy is a statement of intent and is implemented as a procedure or protocol. 　Policies are generally adopted by a governance body within an organization. 　Policies can assist in both subjective and objective decision making. 　Policies used in subjective decision-making usually assist senior management with decisions that must be based on the relative merits of a number of factors, and as a result, are often hard to test objectively, e.g. work–life balance policy... 　Moreover, Governments and other institutions have policies in the form of laws, regulations, procedures, administrative actions, incentives and voluntary practices. 　Frequently, resource allocations mirror policy decisions. 　Policy is a blueprint of the organizational activities which are repetitive/routine in nature. 　In contrast, policies to assist in objective decision-making are usually operational in nature and can be objectively tested, e.g. password policy. 　The term may apply to government, public sector organizations and groups, as well as individuals, Presidential executive orders, corporate privacy policies, and parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy. 　Policy differs from rules or law. 　While the law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the payment of taxes on income), policy merely guides actions toward those that are most likely to achieve the desired outcome. 　Policy or policy study may also refer to the process of making important organizational decisions, including the identification of different alternatives such as programs or spending priorities, and choosing among them on the basis of the impact they will have. 　Policies can be understood as political, managerial, financial, and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit goals. 　In public corporate finance, a critical accounting policy is a policy for a firm/company or an industry that is considered to have a notably high subjective element, and that has a material impact on the financial statements.　[citation needed]

Female

An organism's sex is female (symbol: ♀) if it produces the large non-motile ovum (egg cell), the type of gamete (sex cell) that fuses with the male gamete (sperm cell) during sexual reproduction. 　A female has larger gametes than a male. 　Females and males are results of the anisogamous reproduction system, wherein gametes are of different sizes (unlike isogamy where they are the same size). 　The exact mechanism of female gamete evolution remains unknown. 　In species that have males and females, sex-determination may be based on either sex chromosomes, or environmental conditions. 　Most female mammals, including female humans, have two X chromosomes. 　Female characteristics vary between different species, with some species having pronounced secondary female sex characteristics, such as the presence of pronounced mammary glands in mammals. 　In humans, the word female can also be used to refer to gender in the social sense of gender role or gender identity.

Success

Success is the state or condition of meeting a defined range of expectations. 　It may be viewed as the opposite of failure. 　The criteria for success depend on context, and may be relative to a particular observer or belief system. 　One person might consider a success what another person considers a failure, particularly in cases of direct competition or a zero-sum game. 　Similarly, the degree of success or failure in a situation may be differently viewed by distinct observers or participants, such that a situation that one considers to be a success, another might consider to be a failure, a qualified success or a neutral situation. 　For example, a film that is a commercial failure or even a box-office bomb can go on to receive a cult following, with the initial lack of commercial success even lending a cachet of subcultural coolness. 　It may also be difficult or impossible to ascertain whether a situation meets criteria for success or failure due to ambiguous or ill-defined definition of those criteria. 　Finding useful and effective criteria, or heuristics, to judge the failure or success of a situation may itself be a significant task.

Image

An image is a visual representation of something. 　It can be two-dimensional, three-dimensional, or somehow otherwise feed into the visual system to convey information. 　An image can be an artifact, such as a photograph or other two-dimensional picture, that resembles a subject. 　In the context of signal processing, an image is a distributed amplitude of color(s). 　In optics, the term "image" may refer specifically to a 2D image. 　An image does not have to use the entire visual system to be a visual representation. 　A popular example of this is of a greyscale image, which uses the visual system's sensitivity to brightness across all wavelengths, without taking into account different colors. 　A black and white visual representation of something is still an image, even though it does not make full use of the visual system's capabilities. 　Images are typically still, but in some cases can be moving or animated.

Bay

A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay. 　A large bay is usually called a gulf, sea, sound, or bight. 　A cove is a small, circular bay with a narrow entrance. 　A fjord is an elongated bay formed by glacial action. 　A bay can be the estuary of a river, such as the Chesapeake Bay, an estuary of the Susquehanna River. 　Bays may also be nested within each other; for example, James Bay is an arm of Hudson Bay in northeastern Canada. 　Some large bays, such as the Bay of Bengal and Hudson Bay, have varied marine geology.　[citation needed] The land surrounding a bay often reduces the strength of winds and blocks waves. 　Bays may have as wide a variety of shoreline characteristics as other shorelines. 　In some cases, bays have beaches, which "are usually characterized by a steep upper foreshore with a broad, flat fronting terrace". 　Bays were significant in the history of human settlement because they provided safe places for fishing. 　Later they were important in the development of sea trade as the safe anchorage they provide encouraged their selection as ports.

Studio

A studio is an artist or worker's workroom. 　This can be for the purpose of acting, architecture, painting, pottery (ceramics), sculpture, origami, woodworking, scrapbooking, photography, graphic design, filmmaking, animation, industrial design, radio or television production broadcasting or the making of music. 　The term is also used for the workroom of dancers, often specified to dance studio. 　The word studio is derived from the Italian: studio, from Latin: studium, from studere, meaning to study or zeal. 　The French term for studio, atelier, in addition to designating an artist's studio is used to characterize the studio of a fashion designer. 　Studio is also a metonym for the group of people who work within a particular studio.

Bit

The bit is the most basic unit of information in computing and digital communications. 　The name is a portmanteau of binary digit. 　The bit represents a logical state with one of two possible values. 　These values are most commonly represented as either "1" or "0", but other representations such as true/false, yes/no, on/off, or +/− are also commonly used. 　The relation between these values and the physical states of the underlying storage or device is a matter of convention, and different assignments may be used even within the same device or program. 　It may be physically implemented with a two-state device. 　A contiguous group of binary digits is commonly called a bit string, a bit vector, or a single-dimensional (or multi-dimensional) bit array. 　A group of eight bits is called one byte, but historically the size of the byte is not strictly defined. 　Frequently, half, full, double and quadruple words consist of a number of bytes which is a low power of two. 　A string of four bits is a nibble. 　In information theory, one bit is the information entropy of a random binary variable that is 0 or 1 with equal probability, or the information that is gained when the value of such a variable becomes known. 　As a unit of information, the bit is also known as a shannon, named after Claude E. Shannon. 　The symbol for the binary digit is either "bit" as per the IEC 80000-13:2008 standard, or the lowercase character "b", as per the IEEE 1541-2002 standard. 　Use of the latter may create confusion with the capital "B" which is used for the byte.

Forced

Forced is a single-player and co-op action role-playing game developed by BetaDwarf, released in October 2013 for Windows, OS X and Linux through the Steam platform as well as Wii U. It is about gladiators fighting for their freedom in a fantasy arena where they are assisted by a spirit-like character called Balfus. 　Gameplay consists of selecting a weapon class and abilities to combat the various enemies of each arena, while solving puzzles using the help of Balfus. 　BetaDwarf was formed by a small group of students in 2011, who began developing the game in an unused classroom in Aalborg University – Copenhagen, Denmark. 　They were removed months later and launched a successful Kickstarter campaign involving an Imgur picture which documented their progress. 　Forced received moderate to favorable reviews with most critics praising its competitive gameplay and puzzle-system. 　The game's weak plot, technical glitches and excess difficulty were the negative highlights. 　It won the Level Up 2013 Intel award and BetaDwarf received the Danish Developer Of The Year (2013) for it.

Goal

A goal is an idea of the future or desired result that a person or a group of people envision, plan and commit to achieve. 　People endeavour to reach goals within a finite time by setting deadlines. 　A goal is roughly similar to a purpose or aim, the anticipated result which guides reaction, or an end, which is an object, either a physical object or an abstract object, that has intrinsic value.

Opening (morphology)

In mathematical morphology, opening is the dilation of the erosion of a set A by a structuring element B: A ∘ B = ( A ⊖ B ) ⊕ B , {\displaystyle A\circ B=(A\ominus B)\oplus B,\,} where ⊖ {\displaystyle \ominus } and ⊕ {\displaystyle \oplus } denote erosion and dilation, respectively. 　Together with closing, the opening serves in computer vision and image processing as a basic workhorse of morphological noise removal. 　Opening removes small objects from the foreground (usually taken as the bright pixels) of an image, placing them in the background, while closing removes small holes in the foreground, changing small islands of background into foreground. 　These techniques can also be used to find specific shapes in an image. 　Opening can be used to find things into which a specific structuring element can fit (edges, corners, ...). 　One can think of B sweeping around the inside of the boundary of A, so that it does not extend beyond the boundary, and shaping the A boundary around the boundary of the element.

Relationship

Look up relationship in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Relationship most often refers to: Family relations and relatives: consanguinity Interpersonal relationship, a strong, deep, or close association or acquaintance between two or more people Correlation and dependence, relationships in mathematics and statistics between two variables or sets of data Semantic relationship, an ontology component Romance (love), a connection between two people driven by love and/or sexual attraction Relationship or Relationships may also refer to:

Knowledge

Knowledge is often understood as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also mean familiarity with objects or situations. 　Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. 　While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. 　These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. 　Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. 　Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false. 　Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. 　The most important source of empirical knowledge is perception, which refers to the usage of the senses. 　Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. 　Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. 　According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. 　This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. 　Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. 　It is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. 　The problem of the value of knowledge concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. 　Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. 　Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. 　Science tries to acquire knowledge using the scientific method, which is based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. 　Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge.