Rock (geology)

In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. 　It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. 　Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. 　The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. 　It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. 　Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. 　Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. 　Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. 　Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. 　Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. 　This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. 　Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. 　Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. 　Modern technology has allowed the development of new man-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete.

Green

You may need rendering support to display the Persian text in this article correctly. 　Green is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum. 　It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm. 　In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combination of yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors. 　By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy. 　Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage. 　Several minerals have a green color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content. 　During post-classical and early modern Europe, green was the color commonly associated with wealth, merchants, bankers, and the gentry, while red was reserved for the nobility. 　For this reason, the costume of the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci and the benches in the British House of Commons are green while those in the House of Lords are red. 　It also has a long historical tradition as the color of Ireland and of Gaelic culture. 　It is the historic color of Islam, representing the lush vegetation of Paradise. 　It was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries. 　In surveys made in American, European, and Islamic countries, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope, and envy. 　In the European Union and the United States, green is also sometimes associated with toxicity and poor health, but in China and most of Asia, its associations are very positive, as the symbol of fertility and happiness. 　Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement. 　Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties. 　This has led to similar campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly, products. 　Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission; a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States.

David

David (/ˈdeɪvɪd/; Hebrew: דָּוִד‎, Modern: Davīd, Tiberian: Dāwīḏ, "beloved one") was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the third king of the United Kingdom of Israel. 　Historians of the Ancient Near East agree that David probably lived around 1000 BCE, but little more is known about him as a historical figure. 　According to Jewish works such as the Seder Olam Rabbah, Seder Olam Zutta, and Sefer ha-Qabbalah, David ascended the throne as the king of Judah in 885 BCE. 　The Tel Dan stele, a Canaanite-inscribed stone that was erected by a king of Aram-Damascus in the late-9th/early-8th centuries BCE to commemorate a victory over two enemy kings, contains the Hebrew-language phrase Beit David (בית דוד‎), which is translated to "House of David" by most scholars. 　The Mesha stele, erected by king Mesha of Moab in the 9th century BCE, may also refer to the "House of David" although this is disputed. 　Apart from this, all that is known of David comes from biblical literature, the historicity of which has been extensively challenged, and there is little detail about David that is concrete and undisputed. 　In the biblical narrative of the Books of Samuel, David is described as a young shepherd and harpist who gains fame by killing Goliath. 　He becomes a favorite of Saul, the first king of Israel, but is forced to go into hiding when Saul becomes paranoid that David is trying to take his throne. 　After Saul and his son Jonathan are killed in battle, David is anointed king by the tribe of Judah and eventually all the tribes of Israel. 　He conquers Jerusalem, makes it the capital of a united Israel and brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city. 　He commits adultery with Bathsheba and arranges the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. 　David's son Absalom later tries to overthrow him, but David returns to Jerusalem after Absalom's death to continue his reign. 　David desires to build a temple to Yahweh but is denied because of the bloodshed in his reign. 　He dies at age 70 and chooses Solomon, his son with Bathsheba, as his successor instead of his eldest son Adonijah. 　David is honored as an ideal king and the forefather of the future Hebrew Messiah in Jewish prophetic literature and many psalms are attributed to him. 　David is also richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition and referenced in the New Testament. 　Early Christians interpreted the life of Jesus of Nazareth in light of references to the Hebrew Messiah and to David; Jesus is described as being directly descended from David in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. 　In the Quran and hadith, David is described as an Israelite king as well as a prophet of Allah. 　The biblical David has inspired many interpretations in art and literature over the centuries.

Match

A match is a tool for starting a fire. 　Typically, matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff paper. 　One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by friction generated by striking the match against a suitable surface. 　Wooden matches are packaged in matchboxes, and paper matches are partially cut into rows and stapled into matchbooks. 　The coated end of a match, known as the match "head", consists of a bead of active ingredients and binder, often colored for easier inspection. 　There are two main types of matches: safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface, and strike-anywhere matches, for which any suitably frictional surface can be used. 　Because of the substance used to coat each match, this makes them non-biodegradable.

Girl

A girl is a young female human, usually a child or an adolescent. 　When a girl becomes an adult, she is accurately described as a woman. 　However, the term girl is also used for other meanings, including young woman, and is sometimes used as a synonym for daughter, or girlfriend.　[citation needed] In certain contexts, the usage of girl for a woman may be derogatory. 　Girl may also be a term of endearment used by an adult, usually a woman, to designate adult female friends. 　Girl also appears in portmanteaus (compound words) like showgirl, cowgirl, and schoolgirl. 　The treatment and status of girls in any society is usually closely related to the status of women in that culture. 　In cultures where women have a low societal position, girls may be unwanted by their parents, and the state may invest less in services for girls. 　Girls' upbringing ranges from being relatively the same as that of boys to complete sex segregation and completely different gender roles.

Blood

Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. 　Blood in the circulatory system is also known as peripheral blood, and the blood cells it carries, peripheral blood cells. 　Blood is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. 　Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves. 　Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.　[citation needed] The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes), and in mammals platelets (also called thrombocytes). 　The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. 　These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas thereby increasing its solubility in blood. 　In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma. 　Vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. 　Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin. 　Insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. 　In most insects, this "blood" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen. 　Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. 　White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. 　Platelets are important in the clotting of blood. 　Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system. 　Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. 　In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. 　Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo-, hemato-, haemo- or haemato- from the Greek word αἷμα (haima) for "blood". 　In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen.　[citation needed]

Mean

There are several kinds of mean in mathematics, especially in statistics. 　Each mean serves to summarize a given group of data, often to better understand the overall value (magnitude and sign) of a given data set. 　For a data set, the arithmetic mean, also known as "arithmetic average", is a measure of central tendency of a finite set of numbers: specifically, the sum of the values divided by the number of values. 　The arithmetic mean of a set of numbers x1, x2, ..., xn is typically denoted using an overhead bar, x ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {x}}} . 　If the data set were based on a series of observations obtained by sampling from a statistical population, the arithmetic mean is the sample mean ( x ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {x}}} ) to distinguish it from the mean, or expected value, of the underlying distribution, the population mean (denoted μ {\displaystyle \mu } or μ x {\displaystyle \mu _{x}} ). 　Outside probability and statistics, a wide range of other notions of mean are often used in geometry and mathematical analysis; examples are given below.

Self

The self is an individual as the object of that individual’s own reflective consciousness. 　Since the self is a reference by a subject to the same subject, this reference is necessarily subjective. 　The sense of having a self—or selfhood—should, however, not be confused with subjectivity itself. 　Ostensibly, this sense is directed outward from the subject to refer inward, back to its "self" (or itself). 　Examples of psychiatric conditions where such "sameness" may become broken include depersonalization, which sometimes occurs in schizophrenia: the self appears different from the subject. 　The first-person perspective distinguishes selfhood from personal identity. 　Whereas "identity" is (literally) sameness and may involve categorization and labeling, selfhood implies a first-person perspective and suggests potential uniqueness. 　Conversely, we use "person" as a third-person reference. 　Personal identity can be impaired in late-stage Alzheimer's disease and in other neurodegenerative diseases. 　Finally, the self is distinguishable from "others". 　Including the distinction between sameness and otherness, the self versus other is a research topic in contemporary philosophy and contemporary phenomenology (see also psychological phenomenology), psychology, psychiatry, neurology, and neuroscience. 　Although subjective experience is central to selfhood, the privacy of this experience is only one of many problems in the Philosophy of self and scientific study of consciousness.

Blue

Blue is one of the three primary colours in the RYB colour model (traditional colour theory), as well as in the RGB (additive) colour model. 　It lies between violet and cyan on the spectrum of visible light. 　The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. 　Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. 　The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. 　An optical effect called Tyndall effect explains blue eyes. 　Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective. 　Blue has been an important colour in art and decoration since ancient times. 　The semi-precious stone lapis lazuli was used in ancient Egypt for jewellery and ornament and later, in the Renaissance, to make the pigment ultramarine, the most expensive of all pigments. 　In the eighth century Chinese artists used cobalt blue to colour fine blue and white porcelain. 　In the Middle Ages, European artists used it in the windows of cathedrals. 　Europeans wore clothing coloured with the vegetable dye woad until it was replaced by the finer indigo from America. 　In the 19th century, synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced organic dyes and mineral pigments. 　Dark blue became a common colour for military uniforms and later, in the late 20th century, for business suits. 　Because blue has commonly been associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations and the European Union. 　Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and occasionally with sadness. 　In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, chosen by almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour. 　The same surveys also showed that blue was the colour most associated with the masculine, just ahead of black, and was also the colour most associated with intelligence, knowledge, calm, and concentration.

Daughter

A daughter is a female offspring; a girl or a woman in relation to her parents. 　Daughterhood is the state of being someone's daughter. 　The male counterpart is a son. 　Analogously the name is used in several areas to show relations between groups or elements. 　From biological perspective, a daughter is a first degree relative. 　The word daughter also has several other connotations attached to it, one of these being used in reference to a female descendant or consanguinity. 　It can also be used as a term of endearment coming from an elder. 　In patriarchal societies, daughters often have different or lesser familial rights than sons. 　A family may prefer to have sons rather than daughters and subject daughters to female infanticide. 　In some societies it is the custom for a daughter to be 'sold' to her husband, who must pay a bride price. 　The reverse of this custom, where the parents pay the husband a sum of money to compensate for the financial burden of the woman and is known as a dowry. 　The payment of a dowry can be found in societies where women do not labour outside the home.

Rights

Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory. 　Rights are of essential importance in such disciplines as law and ethics, especially theories of justice and deontology. 　The history of social conflicts has often involved attempts to define and redefine rights. 　According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "rights structure the form of governments, the content of laws, and the shape of morality as it is currently perceived".

Committee

A committee or commission is a body of one or more persons subordinate to a deliberative assembly. 　A committee is not itself considered to be a form of assembly. 　Usually, the assembly sends matters into a committee as a way to explore them more fully than would be possible if the assembly itself were considering them. 　Committees may have different functions and their types of work differ depending on the type of the organization and its needs. 　A member of a legislature may be delegated a committee assignment, which gives them the right to serve on a certain committee.

Lake

A lake is a naturally occurring, relatively large body of water localized in a basin surrounded by land, with much slower-moving flow than any inflow or outflow streams that serve to feed or drain the lake. 　Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from the ocean, although, like the much larger oceans, they form part of the Earth's water cycle by serving as large standing water reservoirs. 　Most lakes are freshwater, but some are salt lakes with salinities even higher than that of seawater. 　Lakes are typically much larger and deeper than ponds, which also water-filled basins on land, although there are no official definitions or scientific criteria distinguishing the two. 　Most lakes are both fed and drained by creeks and rivers, but some lakes are endorheic without any outflowing drainage, while volcanic lakes are filled directly by precipitation runoffs and do not have any inflow streams. 　Lakes are also distinct from lagoons, which are shallow tidal pools dammed by sandbars at coastal regions. 　Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas (i.e. alpine lakes), dormant volcanic craters, rift zones and areas with ongoing glaciation. 　Other lakes are found in depressed landforms or along the courses of mature rivers, where a river channel has widened over a basin formed by eroded floodplains and wetlands. 　Some parts of the world have many lakes formed by the chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age. 　All lakes are temporary over long periods of time, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. 　Artificially controlled lakes are known as reservoirs, and are usually constructed for industrial or agricultural use, for hydroelectric power generation, for supplying domestic drinking water, for ecological or recreational purposes, or for other human activities.

Everything

Everything, every-thing, or every thing is all that exists; the opposite of nothing, or its complement. 　It is the totality of things relevant to some subject matter. 　Without expressed or implied limits, it may refer to anything. 　The universe is everything that exists theoretically, though a multiverse may exist according to theoretical cosmology predictions. 　It may refer to an anthropocentric worldview, or the sum of human experience, history, and the human condition in general. 　Every object and entity is a part of everything, including all physical bodies and in some cases all abstract objects.

Future

The future is the time after the past and present. 　Its arrival is considered inevitable due to the existence of time and the laws of physics. 　Due to the apparent nature of reality and the unavoidability of the future, everything that currently exists and will exist can be categorized as either permanent, meaning that it will exist forever, or temporary, meaning that it will end. 　In the Occidental view, which uses a linear conception of time, the future is the portion of the projected timeline that is anticipated to occur. 　In special relativity, the future is considered absolute future, or the future light cone. 　In the philosophy of time, presentism is the belief that only the present exists and the future and the past are unreal. 　Religions consider the future when they address issues such as karma, life after death, and eschatologies that study what the end of time and the end of the world will be. 　Religious figures such as prophets and diviners have claimed to see into the future. 　Future studies, or futurology, is the science, art, and practice of postulating possible futures. 　Modern practitioners stress the importance of alternative and plural futures, rather than one monolithic future, and the limitations of prediction and probability, versus the creation of possible and preferable futures. 　Predeterminism is the belief that the past, present, and future have been already decided. 　The concept of the future has been explored extensively in cultural production, including art movements and genres devoted entirely to its elucidation, such as the 20th-century movement futurism.

Function (biology)

In evolutionary biology, function is the reason some object or process occurred in a system that evolved through natural selection. 　That reason is typically that it achieves some result, such as that chlorophyll helps to capture the energy of sunlight in photosynthesis. 　Hence, the organism that contains it is more likely to survive and reproduce, in other words the function increases the organism's fitness. 　A characteristic that assists in evolution is called an adaptation; other characteristics may be non-functional spandrels, though these in turn may later be co-opted by evolution to serve new functions. 　In biology, function has been defined in many ways. 　In physiology, it is simply what an organ, tissue, cell or molecule does. 　In the philosophy of biology, talk of function inevitably suggests some kind of teleological purpose, even though natural selection operates without any goal for the future. 　All the same, biologists often use teleological language as a shorthand for function. 　In contemporary philosophy of biology, there are three major accounts of function in the biological world: theories of causal role, selected effect, and goal contribution.

Particular

In metaphysics, particulars or individuals are usually contrasted with universals. 　Universals concern features that can be exemplified by various different particulars. 　Particulars are often seen as concrete, spatiotemporal entities as opposed to abstract entities, such as properties or numbers. 　There are, however, theories of abstract particulars or tropes. 　For example, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars). 　Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because it is abstract and multiply instantiated (for example a bicycle, an apple, and a given woman's hair can all be red). 　In nominalist view everything is particular. 　Universals in each moment of time from point of view of an observer is the collection of particulars that participates it (even a void collection).

Money

Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts, such as taxes, in a particular country or socio-economic context. 　The primary functions which distinguish money are as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value and sometimes, a standard of deferred payment. 　Money was historically an emergent market phenomenon that possess intrinsic value as a commodity; nearly all contemporary money systems are based on unbacked fiat money without use value. 　Its value is consequently derived by social convention, having been declared by a government or regulatory entity to be legal tender; that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private", in the case of the United States dollar. 　The money supply of a country comprises all currency in circulation (banknotes and coins currently issued) and, depending on the particular definition used, one or more types of bank money (the balances held in checking accounts, savings accounts, and other types of bank accounts). 　Bank money, whose value exists on the books of financial institutions and can be converted into physical notes or used for cashless payment, forms by far the largest part of broad money in developed countries.

Style (zoology)

A style, sometimes referred to as a crystalline style (though there are no other biological kinds), is a rod made of glycoprotein located in the midgut of most bivalves and some gastropods which aids in extracellular digestion. 　It consists of a protein matrix coated with digestive enzymes secreted by the style sac in the animal's stomach. 　When feeding, its projecting end is scraped against the stomach wall and abraded, thus releasing the enzymes. 　When subjected to starvation or desiccation, some bivalves have been known to re-ingest this organ.

Style

Look up style, -style, styling, or stylistic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 　Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to: Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable Design, the process of creating something Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing styles Style (visual arts) Writing style, the manner in which a writer addresses readers Film style

Leading

In typography, leading (/ˈlɛdɪŋ/ LED-ing) is the space between adjacent lines of type; the exact definition varies. 　In hand typesetting, leading is the thin strips of lead (or aluminium) that were inserted between lines of type in the composing stick to increase the vertical distance between them. 　The thickness of the strip is called leading and is equal to the difference between the size of the type and the distance from one baseline to the next. 　For instance, given a type size of 10 points and a distance between baselines of 12 points, the leading would be 2 points. 　The term is still used in modern page-layout software such as QuarkXPress, the Affinity Suite, and Adobe InDesign. 　Consumer-oriented word-processing software often talks of line spacing or, more accurately, interline spacing.

Cross

A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. 　The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. 　A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is termed a saltire in heraldic terminology. 　The cross has been widely recognized as a symbol of Christianity from an early period. 　However, the use of the cross as a religious symbol predates Christianity; in the ancient times it was a pagan religious symbol throughout Europe and western Asia. 　The effigy of a man hanging on a cross was set up in the fields to protect the crops. 　It often appeared in conjunction with the female-genital circle or oval, to signify the sacred marriage, as in Egyptian amulet Nefer with male cross and female orb, considered as an amulet of blessedness, a charm of sexual harmony.

Lord

Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power over others, acting as a master, chief, or ruler. 　The appellation can also denote certain persons who hold a title of the peerage in the United Kingdom, or are entitled to courtesy titles. 　The collective "Lords" can refer to a group or body of peers.

Institute

An institute is an organisational body created for a certain purpose. 　They are often research organisations (research institutes) created to do research on specific topics, or can also be a professional body. 　In some countries, institutes can be part of a university or other institutions of higher education, either as a group of departments or an autonomous educational institution without a traditional university status such as a "university institute" (see Institute of Technology). 　In some countries, such as South Korea and India, private schools are sometimes referred to as institutes, and in Spain, secondary schools are referred to as institutes. 　Historically, in some countries institutes were educational units imparting vocational training and often incorporating libraries, also known as mechanics' institutes. 　The word "institute" comes from a Latin word institutum meaning "facility" or "habit"; from instituere meaning "build", "create", "raise" or "educate".