Still

A still is an apparatus used to distill liquid mixtures by heating to selectively boil and then cooling to condense the vapor. 　It still uses the same concepts as a basic distillation apparatus, but on a much larger scale. 　Stills have been used to produce perfume and medicine, water for injection (WFI) for pharmaceutical use, generally to separate and purify different chemicals, and to produce distilled beverages containing ethanol.

Head

A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. 　Some very simple animals may not have a head, but many bilaterally symmetric forms do, regardless of size. 　Heads develop in animals by an evolutionary trend known as cephalization. 　In bilaterally symmetrical animals, nervous tissue concentrate at the anterior region, forming structures responsible for information processing. 　Through biological evolution, sense organs and feeding structures also concentrate into the anterior region; these collectively form the head.

Head (hydrology)

In hydrology, the head is the point on a watercourse up to which it has been artificially broadened and/or raised by an impoundment. 　Above the head of the reservoir natural conditions prevail; below it the water level above the riverbed has been raised by the impoundment and its flow rate reduced, unless and until banks, barrages, weir sluices or dams are overcome (overtopped), whereby a less frictional than natural course will exist (mid-level and surface rather than bed and bank currents) resulting in flash flooding below. 　In principle, a distinction must be drawn between the head of a reservoir impounded by a dam, and the head of a works resulting from a barrage or canal locks.

Head (geology)

Head describes deposits consisting of fragmented material which, following weathering, have moved downslope through a process of solifluction. 　The term has been used by British geologists since the middle of the 19th century to describe such material in a range of different settings from flat hilltops to the bottoms of valleys. 　Areas identified as head include deposits of aeolian origin such as blown sand and loess, slope deposits such as gelifluctates and solifluctates, and recently eroded soil material, called colluvium. 　With geologists becoming more interested in studying the near-surface environment and its related processes, the term head is becoming obsolete. 　A related term is 'combe (or coombe) rock', descriptive of a body of chalk and flint fragments contained within a mass of chalky earth typically found on the chalk downlands of south-east England and resulting from freeze-thaw processes. 　Where the mass is also soliflucted, it is considered a variety of head. 　Though its earliest use is attributed to De la Beche in 1839 he mentions that in 1837 Mr. Trevelyn of Guernsey observed “ a bed of disintegrated granite, about three feet thick, mixed with angular fragments, thus reminding us of the head of angular fragments so commonly seen in Cornwall and Devon.　“

Man

A man is an adult male human. 　Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). 　Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the father. 　Sex differentiation of the male fetus is governed by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. 　During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. 　These include greater muscle mass, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. 　Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by the male reproductive system, which includes the penis, testicles, sperm duct, prostate gland and the epididymis, and by secondary sex characteristics, including a narrower pelvis, narrower hips, and smaller breasts without mammary glands. 　Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined and limited men's activities and opportunities. 　Men often face conscription into military service or are directed into professions with high mortality rates, resulting in a shorter life expectancy than women. 　Many religious doctrines stipulate certain rules for men, such as forced circumcision. 　Men are over-represented as both perpetrators and victims of violence. 　Trans men have a gender identity that does not align with their female sex assignment at birth, while intersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.

Team

A team is a group of individuals (human or non-human) working together to achieve their goal. 　As defined by Professor Leigh Thompson of the Kellogg School of Management, "[a] team is a group of people who are interdependent with respect to information, resources, knowledge and skills and who seek to combine their efforts to achieve a common goal". 　A group does not necessarily constitute a team. 　Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize their strengths and minimize their weaknesses. 　Naresh Jain (2009) claims: Team members need to learn how to help one another, help other team members realize their true potential, and create an environment that allows everyone to go beyond their limitations. 　While academic research on teams and teamwork has grown consistently and has shown a sharp increase over the past recent 40 years, the societal diffusion of teams and teamwork actually followed a volatile trend in the 20th century. 　The concept was introduced into business in the late 20th century, which was followed by a popularization of the concept of constructing teams. 　Differing opinions exist on the efficacy of this new management fad. 　Some see "team" as a four-letter word: overused and under-useful. 　Others see it as a panacea that realizes the Human Relations Movement's desire to integrate what that movement perceives as best for workers and as best for managers. 　Many people believe in the effectiveness of teams, but also see them as dangerous because of the potential for exploiting workers — in that team effectiveness can rely on peer pressure and peer surveillance. 　However, Hackman sees team effectiveness not only in terms of performance: a truly effective team will contribute to the personal well-being and adaptive growth of its members. 　English-speakers commonly use the word "team" in today's society to characterise many types of groups. 　Peter Guy Northouse's book Leadership: theory and practice discusses teams from a leadership perspective. 　According to the team approach to leadership, a team is a type of organizational group of people that are members.　[citation needed] A team is composed of members who are dependent on each other, work towards interchangeable achievements, and share common attainments. 　A team works as a whole together to achieve certain things. 　A team is usually located in the same setting as it is normally connected to a kind of organization, company, or community. 　Teams can meet in-person (directly face-to-face) or virtually when practicing their values and activities or duties. 　A team's communication is significantly important to their relationship.　[citation needed] Ergo, communication is frequent and persistent, and as well are the meetings.　[citation needed] The definition of team as an organizational group is not completely set in stone, as organizations have confronted a myriad[quantify] of new forms of contemporary collaboration. 　Teams usually have strong organizational structured platforms and respond quickly and efficiently to challenges as they have skills and the capability to do so.　[citation needed] An effective organizational team leads to greater productivity, more effective implementation of resources, better decisions and problem-solving, better-quality products/service, and greater innovation and originality.　[citation needed] Alongside the concept of a team, compare the more structured/skilled concept of a crew, the advantages of formal and informal partnerships, or the well-defined – but time-limited – existence of task forces. 　A team becomes more than just a collection of people when a strong sense of mutual commitment creates synergy, thus generating performance greater than the sum of the performance of its individual members. 　Thus teams of game players can form (and re-form) to practise their craft/sport. 　Transport logistics executives can select teams of horses, dogs, or oxen for the purpose of conveying passengers or goods.

Family

Family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). 　The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. 　Ideally, families offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and learn to participate in the community. 　Historically, most human societies use family as the primary locus of attachment, nurturance, and socialization. 　Anthropologists classify most family organizations as matrifocal (a mother and her children), patrifocal (a father and his children), conjugal (a wife, her husband, and children, also called the nuclear family), avuncular (a man, his sister, and her children), or extended (in addition to parents and children, may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, or cousins). 　The field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. 　The family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics. 　The word "families" can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, and global village.

Family (biology)

Family (Latin: familia, plural familiae) is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. 　It is classified between order and genus. 　A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks between the ranks of family and genus. 　The official family names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, but that family is commonly referred to as the "walnut family". 　What belongs to a family—or if a described family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. 　There are no hard rules for describing or recognizing a family, but in plants, they can be characterized on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of plant species. 　Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions, and there may be no broad consensus across the scientific community for some time. 　The publishing of new data and opinions often enables adjustments and consensus.

House

A house is a single-unit residential building. 　It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. 　Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. 　Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space and protect its inhabitants and contents from burglars or other trespassers. 　Most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. 　A house may have a separate dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. 　Some large houses in North America have a recreation room. 　In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock (like cattle) may share part of the house with humans. 　The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household. 　Most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. 　Some houses only have a dwelling space for one family or similar-sized group; larger houses called townhouses or row houses may contain numerous family dwellings in the same structure. 　A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment and tools. 　A house may have a backyard or a front yard or both, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat.

House (astrology)

Most horoscopic traditions of astrology systems divide the horoscope into a number (usually twelve) of houses whose positions depend on time and location rather than on date. 　In Hindu astrological tradition these are known as Bhāvas. 　The houses of the horoscope represent different fields of experience wherein the energies of the signs and planets operate—described in terms of physical surroundings as well as personal life experiences.

War

War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. 　It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces. 　Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general. 　Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties. 　While some war studies scholars consider war a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, others argue it is a result of specific socio-cultural, economic or ecological circumstances.

Life

Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from matter that does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energy transformation, and reproduction. 　Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. 　Biology is the science that studies life. 　The gene is the unit of heredity, whereas the cell is the structural and functional unit of life. 　There are two kinds of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, both of which consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane and contain many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. 　Cells reproduce through a process of cell division, in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells and passes its genes onto a new generation, sometimes producing genetic variation. 　Organisms, or the individual entities of life, are generally thought to be open systems that maintain homeostasis, are composed of cells, have a life cycle, undergo metabolism, can grow, adapt to their environment, respond to stimuli, reproduce and evolve over multiple generations. 　Other definitions sometimes include non-cellular life forms such as viruses and viroids, but they are usually excluded because they do not function on their own; rather, they exploit the biological processes of hosts. 　Abiogenesis, also known as the origin of life, is the natural process of life arising from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. 　Since its primordial beginnings, life on Earth has changed its environment on a geologic time scale, but it has also adapted to survive in most ecosystems and conditions. 　New lifeforms have evolved from common ancestors through hereditary variation and natural selection, and today, estimates of the number of distinct species range anywhere from 3 million to over 100 million. 　Death is the permanent termination of all biological processes which sustain an organism, and as such, is the end of its life. 　Extinction is the term describing the dying-out of a group or taxon, usually a species. 　Once extinct, the extinct species or taxon cannot come back to life. 　Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of organisms.

Name

A name is a term used for identification by an external observer. 　They can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. 　The entity identified by a name is called its referent. 　A personal name identifies, not necessarily uniquely, a specific individual human. 　The name of a specific entity is sometimes called a proper name (although that term has a philosophical meaning as well) and is, when consisting of only one word, a proper noun. 　Other nouns are sometimes called "common names" or (obsolete) "general names". 　A name can be given to a person, place, or thing; for example, parents can give their child a name or a scientist can give an element a name.

Number

A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. 　The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. 　Numbers can be represented in language with number words. 　More universally, individual numbers can be represented by symbols, called numerals; for example, "5" is a numeral that represents the number five. 　As only a relatively small number of symbols can be memorized, basic numerals are commonly organized in a numeral system, which is an organized way to represent any number. 　The most common numeral system is the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which allows for the representation of any number using a combination of ten fundamental numeric symbols, called digits. 　In addition to their use in counting and measuring, numerals are often used for labels (as with telephone numbers), for ordering (as with serial numbers), and for codes (as with ISBNs). 　In common usage, a numeral is not clearly distinguished from the number that it represents. 　In mathematics, the notion of a number has been extended over the centuries to include zero (0), negative numbers, rational numbers such as one half ( 1 2 ) {\displaystyle \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)} , real numbers such as the square root of 2 ( 2 ) {\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {2}}\right)} and π, and complex numbers which extend the real numbers with a square root of −1 (and its combinations with real numbers by adding or subtracting its multiples). 　Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations, the most familiar being addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation. 　Their study or usage is called arithmetic, a term which may also refer to number theory, the study of the properties of numbers. 　Besides their practical uses, numbers have cultural significance throughout the world. 　For example, in Western society, the number 13 is often regarded as unlucky, and "a million" may signify "a lot" rather than an exact quantity. 　Though it is now regarded as pseudoscience, belief in a mystical significance of numbers, known as numerology, permeated ancient and medieval thought. 　Numerology heavily influenced the development of Greek mathematics, stimulating the investigation of many problems in number theory which are still of interest today. 　During the 19th century, mathematicians began to develop many different abstractions which share certain properties of numbers, and may be seen as extending the concept. 　Among the first were the hypercomplex numbers, which consist of various extensions or modifications of the complex number system. 　In modern mathematics, number systems are considered important special examples of more general algebraic structures such as rings and fields, and the application of the term "number" is a matter of convention, without fundamental significance.

R

R, or r, is the eighteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. 　Its name in English is ar (pronounced /ˈɑːr/), plural ars, or in Ireland or /ˈɔːr/. 　The letter ⟨r⟩ is the eighth most common letter in English and the fourth-most common consonant (after ⟨t⟩, ⟨n⟩, and ⟨s⟩). 　The letter ⟨r⟩ is used to form the ending "-re", which is used in certain words such as centre in some varieties of English spelling, such as British English. 　Canadian English also uses the "-re" ending, unlike American English, where the ending is usually replaced by "-er" (center). 　This does not affect pronunciation.

Following

Following is a 1998 independent neo-noir crime thriller film written, produced, edited and directed by Christopher Nolan. 　It tells the story of a young man who follows strangers around the streets of London and is drawn into a criminal underworld when he fails to keep his distance. 　As Nolan's debut feature, it was designed to be as inexpensive as possible to make. 　Scenes were heavily rehearsed so that just one or two takes were needed to economise on 16mm film stock, the production's greatest expense, and for which Nolan was paying from his salary. 　Unable to afford expensive professional lighting equipment, Nolan mostly used available light. 　Along with writing, directing, and photographing the film, Nolan also helped in editing and production. 　The film was released by The Criterion Collection on both Blu-ray and DVD in North America on 11 December 2012.

Season

A season is a division of the year based on changes in weather, ecology, and the number of daylight hours in a given region. 　On Earth, seasons are the result of the axial parallelism of Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun. 　In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant. 　Various cultures define the number and nature of seasons based on regional variations, and as such there are a number of both modern and historical cultures whose number of seasons varies. 　The Northern Hemisphere experiences most direct sunlight during May, June, and July, as the hemisphere faces the Sun. 　The same is true of the Southern Hemisphere in November, December, and January. 　It is Earth's axial tilt that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months, which increases the solar flux. 　However, due to seasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere. 　In temperate and sub-polar regions, four seasons based on the Gregorian calendar are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn (or fall), and winter. 　Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions which are not tied to any fixed calendar dates: prevernal, vernal, estival, serotinal, autumnal, and hibernal. 　Many tropical regions have two seasons: the rainy, wet, or monsoon season and the dry season. 　Some have a third cool, mild, or harmattan season. 　"Seasons" can also be dictated by the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season, tornado season, and wildfire season.　[citation needed] Some examples of historical importance are the ancient Egyptian seasons—flood, growth, and low water—which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt. 　Seasons often hold special significance for agrarian societies, whose lives revolve around planting and harvest times, and the change of seasons is often attended by ritual. 　The definition of seasons is also cultural. 　In India, from ancient times to the present day, six seasons or Ritu based on south Asian religious or cultural calendars are recognised and identified for purposes such as agriculture and trade.

Government

A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. 　In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. 　Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. 　In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy. 　While all types of organizations have governance, the term government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations. 　The major types of political systems in the modern era are democracies, monarchies, authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. 　Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, and tyranny. 　These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and mixed governments are common. 　The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession.

System

A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. 　A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. 　Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory and other systems sciences. 　Systems have several common properties and characteristics, including structure, function(s), behavior and interconnectivity.

Good

In most contexts, the concept of good denotes the conduct that should be preferred when posed with a choice between possible actions. 　Good is generally considered to be the opposite of evil and is of interest in the study of ethics, morality, philosophy, and religion. 　The specific meaning and etymology of the term and its associated translations among ancient and contemporary languages show substantial variation in its inflection and meaning, depending on circumstances of place and history, or of philosophical or religious context.

Company

A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of people, whether natural, legal or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. 　Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specific, declared goals. 　Companies take various forms, such as: voluntary associations, which may include nonprofit organizations business entities, whose aim is generating profit financial entities and banks programs or educational institutions A company can be created as a legal person so that the company itself has limited liability as members perform or fail to discharge their duty according to the publicly declared incorporation, or published policy. 　When a company closes, it may need to be liquidated to avoid further legal obligations. 　Companies may associate and collectively register themselves as new companies; the resulting entities are often known as corporate groups.

End (topology)

In topology, a branch of mathematics, the ends of a topological space are, roughly speaking, the connected components of the "ideal boundary" of the space. 　That is, each end represents a topologically distinct way to move to infinity within the space. 　Adding a point at each end yields a compactification of the original space, known as the end compactification. 　The notion of an end of a topological space was introduced by Hans Freudenthal (1931).

Area

Area is the measure of a region's size on a surface. 　The area of a plane region or plane area refers to the area of a shape or planar lamina, while surface area refers to the area of an open surface or the boundary of a three-dimensional object. 　Area can be understood as the amount of material with a given thickness that would be necessary to fashion a model of the shape, or the amount of paint necessary to cover the surface with a single coat. 　It is the two-dimensional analogue of the length of a curve (a one-dimensional concept) or the volume of a solid (a three-dimensional concept). 　The area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size. 　In the International System of Units (SI), the standard unit of area is the square metre (written as m2), which is the area of a square whose sides are one metre long. 　A shape with an area of three square metres would have the same area as three such squares. 　In mathematics, the unit square is defined to have area one, and the area of any other shape or surface is a dimensionless real number. 　There are several well-known formulas for the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and circles. 　Using these formulas, the area of any polygon can be found by dividing the polygon into triangles. 　For shapes with curved boundary, calculus is usually required to compute the area. 　Indeed, the problem of determining the area of plane figures was a major motivation for the historical development of calculus. 　For a solid shape such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder, the area of its boundary surface is called the surface area. 　Formulas for the surface areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient Greeks, but computing the surface area of a more complicated shape usually requires multivariable calculus. 　Area plays an important role in modern mathematics. 　In addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to the definition of determinants in linear algebra, and is a basic property of surfaces in differential geometry. 　In analysis, the area of a subset of the plane is defined using Lebesgue measure, though not every subset is measurable. 　In general, area in higher mathematics is seen as a special case of volume for two-dimensional regions. 　Area can be defined through the use of axioms, defining it as a function of a collection of certain plane figures to the set of real numbers. 　It can be proved that such a function exists.

Hand

A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. 　A few other vertebrates such as the koala (which has two opposable thumbs on each "hand" and fingerprints extremely similar to human fingerprints) are often described as having "hands" instead of paws on their front limbs. 　The raccoon is usually described as having "hands" though opposable thumbs are lacking. 　Some evolutionary anatomists use the term hand to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb more generally—for example, in the context of whether the three digits of the bird hand involved the same homologous loss of two digits as in the dinosaur hand. 　The human hand usually has five digits: four fingers plus one thumb; these are often referred to collectively as five fingers, however, whereby the thumb is included as one of the fingers. 　It has 27 bones, not including the sesamoid bone, the number of which varies among people, 14 of which are the phalanges (proximal, intermediate and distal) of the fingers and thumb. 　The metacarpal bones connect the fingers and the carpal bones of the wrist. 　Each human hand has five metacarpals and eight carpal bones. 　Fingers contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings in the body, and are the richest source of tactile feedback. 　They also have the greatest positioning capability of the body; thus, the sense of touch is intimately associated with hands. 　Like other paired organs (eyes, feet, legs) each hand is dominantly controlled by the opposing brain hemisphere, so that handedness—the preferred hand choice for single-handed activities such as writing with a pencil, reflects individual brain functioning. 　Among humans, the hands play an important function in body language and sign language. 　Likewise, the ten digits of two hands and the twelve phalanges of four fingers (touchable by the thumb) have given rise to number systems and calculation techniques.